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No. 1 Published Quarterly at

950 San Marcos, Texas

Second Class Matter, at Postoffiee, San Marcos, Tex. March 21, 194S)

CONTENTS

What Can Texas Expect of Education As a Science.

J. W. Baldwin _ _ - - - - - - - -

What Should Texas Expect from Range Conservation.

B. W. Allred _ _ _ - - - - - - -

What Texas Should Expect from Forest Conservation.

A. D. Folwriler - - - -

What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation. M. A. Hartman Cultural Significance of the Navajo Problem.

Floyd A. Pollock — . - - — — - j - - - -

Controlling Roof Solar Heat Effects in Buildings of the Southwest — Some Observations and Calculations.

Wayne E. Long, W. R. Woolrich, and R. A. Bacon - - —

Antenna Response Patterns for Complex Wave Fronts.

A H. LaGrone - - — - - - - -

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico. Richard A. Geyer -

The Biotic Provinces of Texas.

Random Notes on Texas Fishes,

Some Adaptive Features of the Porpoise Head.

John G. Sinclair — _ - — ^ —

iman.

CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS O F T H E T E X A S A C A D E M Y O F SCIENCE

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1950)

President	C. M. Pomerat	Medical, Br. U. of T.	Galveston
Ex. Vice President	C. C. Doak	Biology, A & M	College Station
Secretary-Treasurer	Gladys H. Baird	Social Sciences	Huntsville
Im. Past President	J. Brian Eby	Geologist, Esperson Bldg.	Houston
Editor	J. L. Baughman	Marine Lab., G.F.O.C.	Rockport
Pres. Conserv, Coun.	J. G. Sinclair	Medical Br., U. of T.	Galveston
Rep. to A.A.A.S.	C. D. Leake	Dean, Medical Br., U. of T.	Galveston
V President, Sec. I, Physical C. F. Squire	Physics, Rice Institute	Houston
V. Pres., Sec. II, Biological S. H. Hopkins	Biology, A. & M,	College Station
V. Pres., Sec. Ill, Social R. H. Sutherland	Hogg Foundation, U. of T.	Austin
V. Pres., Sec. IV, Geological
	A. A. L. Mathews	Geology, U. of H.	Houston
V. Pres., Sec. V, Conservation
	V. H. Schoffelmayer	Texas Chemurgic Council	Dallas
Collegiate Academy	Charles LaMotte	Biology, A. & M.	College Station
Junior Academy	Greta Oppe	Chemistry, Ball High	Galveston
	BOARD OF DIRECTORS (1950)
President	C. M. Pomerat	Medical Br., U. of T.	Galveston
Ex. Vice President	C. C. Doak	Biology, A. & M.	College Station
Secretary-T reasurer	Gladys H. Baird	Social Sciences	Huntsville
Im. Past President	J. Brian Eby	Geologist, Esperson Bldg.	Houston
Elected Director	J. C. Godbey	Chemistry, Southwestern U.	Georgetown
Elected Director	W. Armstrong Price	Geologist	College Station
Elected Director	Gordon Gunter	Marine Lab., U. of T.	Port Aransas
	BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950)
W. R. Woolrich, Dean	Engineering, U. of T.	Austin
L. W. Blau	Humble Oil & Refining Co.	Houston
E. DeGolyer	DeGolyer & McNaughton	Dallas
J. Brian Eby	Consulting Geologist	Houston
0. S. Petty	Petty Geophysical Co.	San Antonio

MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Chairman — George E. Potter, Biology, A. & M. College, College Station

Abilene

Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardm-Simmons Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C.

Alpine

G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross Arlington

W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C.

Austin

Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T.

Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T. Beaumont

Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar Belton

Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor Brownwood

E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne College Station

Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M.

G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M. Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M.

Commerce

Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C.

Corpus Christi

R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U. X^SpIIhs

E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U.

V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U.

H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical Denton

B, B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C,

Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W. Fort Worth

Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U.

Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U.

Haskell M'cClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan

Freeport

C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow Chemical Co.

Galveston

C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T. Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T. Georgetown

Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U. Houston

A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H.

J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg.

F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T. Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical Huntsville

Don G. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C.

Kingsville

John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I. Lubbock

E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech

R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech

Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech Nacogdoches

Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C. E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C.

San Antonio

Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U.

San Marcos

C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.C. Stephenville

S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton

Waco

W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor

The Texas Journal of Science

Volume II, Number 1

March, 195 0,

Vol. II

The Texas Journal of Science

No. 1

March 30, 1950

WHAT CAN TEXAS EXPECT OF EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE?

J. W. Baldwin The University of Texas

The author of this paper is convinced that whatever else may be claimed for modern education it includes a wide variety of more or less scientific aspects. It will be admitted that a considerable portion of this area of the social sciences bears scant likeness to some of the older and more exact nat¬ ural sciences. It is also true that many of its scientific phases cannot boast of precision tools and techniques comparable to those employed in natural sciences.

On the other hand, it can be said that in the past few decades the appli¬ cation of scientific procedures and instruments in the solution of educational problems has grown to such porportion as to command the respect and the approbation of many specialists in all other social sciences, and in not a few natural science areas.

Many thousands of the most capable research specialists in the field of education are devoting their best talents and energies to the important task of taking the guess work out of educational principles and practices. The extent to which these problems have yielded to solution through the applica¬ tion of scientific research techniques is agreeably surprising.

The scientific movement in education is rapidly gaining momentum in Texas as well as elsewhere. Texas is producing its quota of leaders in this movement. The extent to which Texas will be able to collect dividends as profits on its investment in this enterprise will depend chiefly on the extent to which we able able and willing to finance a broad and intensive program of educational research. It will probably realize a wider margin of profit from such an investment than it would from any other source of income.

Education has become a profession devoted to the science of human engineering. It has begun the application of scientific procedures to the dis¬ covery, the development, and the conservation of human values and re¬ sources. We have learned that our human resources are more important than our natural resources. To employ the most effective techniques in the dis¬ covery, the conservation, and proper utilization of human potentialities has become the task which education has chosen to accept as its obligation. No other enterprise can be of greater significance and concern to the state, the nation, and the world.

The remaining phases of this paper will be devoted to an explanation of the opportunities available for the application of scientific procedures in educational practices, and the channels through which the findings of edu¬ cational research may be implemented to enhance the welfare of Texas and other areas as well.

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Within a generation educational administration has grown up from a job involving disciplinary control by means of brute force to a professional status which demands the service of the most capable individuals available

APR 1 0 1950

4

The Texas Journal of Science

for the position. Many years of special training under the guidance of the greatest experts is now essential for the preparation of leaders who are cap¬ able of organizing, administering, and supervising the greatest industry in the state and the nation.

This enormous development of this aspect of educational endeavor has been achieved, for the most part, through the application of scientific pro¬ cedure to the mammoth undertaking. It is the employment of scientific techniques which keeps the machinery of educational administration operat¬ ing smoothly and effectively. Even before the school plant is constructed the administrator makes scientific surveys of population trends and the social and economic aspects of the community in order to determine the proper location for the plant, and to ascertain the requirements for space, equip¬ ment, and other facilities in terms of research findings. By means of such scientific planning it is possible to save large sums of money and to create physical facilities which will serve the needs of the students many times as adequately as guess work procedure would be likely to provide. Innumerable factors involved in the erection and the equipment of school plants are at present based on exact measurement in harmony with years of scientific study on the part of many specialists. The size of classrooms and laboratories, problems of heating, lighting, sanitation, safety, convenience, sound proof¬ ing, the ca^'eteria equipment and arrangement, office space and equipment, and many other factors miss the requirements by wide margins if not worked out in advance of actual construction.

Furthermore, scientific techniques are employed in the securing of teaching and non-teaching personnel and in supervising their activities. The total organization, including provision for all kinds, of student activities, parent teacher organizations, integration of all of the school interests and undertakings, and innumerable problems of management and control, func¬ tions far more effectively when planned and conducted in light of results of scientific studies.

THE CURRICULUM

One of the most profitable phases of educational research deals with the selection, the organization, the grade placement, and the evaluation of the curriculum, and the adjustment of the curriculum to individual and group needs and interests. Dozens of large volumes have been written in the past three decades describing the vast amount of painstaking research which has been produced in the field of curriculum development. Immeasurable economies in teaching and learning have resulted from these studies and surveys.

After the discovery of pupil needs and interests through the utilization of school and community surveys, the study of the nature of child develop¬ ment, and the application of the philosophy of education, it has been found highly profitable to employ scientific procedures in the determination of the experiences which will equip the pupil with the information, the skills, the habits, and the attitudes which enable him to deal intelligently and effec¬ tively with the problems, the responsibilities, and the opportunities which will confront him as a youth and as an adult.

In no other field of educational research has greater progress been made, and in no other is there greater promise for the future. It is an undertaking which commands the endeavors of the entire school staff as well as many individuals and agencies outside of the school. Millions of student hours are

What Can Texas Expect of Education As A Science

5

saved, and the effectiveness of teaching and learning is augmented incal¬ culably by scientific determination of curricular activities best suited to in¬ dividuals and groups at various grade levels. Much wasteful duplication is avoided, and harmful gaps in pupil experiences are discovered in time to make restitution before it is too late to overcome dangerous deficiencies.

As one of the most valuable outcomes of research in the field of cur¬ riculum development the curriculum has been broadened and made flexible, so that the needs of students of all levels of intelligence are adequately met. Provisions have also been made for the proper education of physically handi¬ capped children. The school has become an agency for the education of all of the children instead of the mythical average pupil, chiefly as a result of curriculum research.

TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS

The development and use of standardized tests, and the construction of other precision tools in the measurement of educational performances have marked an outstanding achievement in the application of science in the solution of difficult problems in this profession.

By means of objective diagnostic tests schools and school systems are able to discover their elements of strength and weakness so that remedial measures may be taken where the need is shown to be greatest. Standardized achievement tests provide a scientific measure of pupil progress toward the achievement of the improvements which diagnostic tests indicate as desir¬ able. It is possible through the use of standardized tests to compare the standards achieved in different schools and systems. These tests not only tell how much progress students make as compared with other students in a given school or in other schools, but serve as a good measure of the teacher’s effectiveness and the relative values of different teaching procedures.

One of the earliest tests to be used for scientific investigation in education is the scientifically developed intelligence test, by means of which it is possible to adjust the work of the school to children of widely varying levels of intelligence. Coupled with aptitude tests, intelligence tests assist the school in the guidance of students into experiences which will equip them for the kind of vocational and avocational activities best suited to the needs and interests of each. Thousands of students have by this means found places in life which make them happy and useful citizens engaged in useful, hopeful employment, thus avoiding frustration and despair which would have resulted from misfit preparation and unwise choice of occupation.

Many of the types of tests and testing procedures which have been developed in educational institutions have been adopted with great profit by industry, the armed forces, and other agencies. They have assisted these agencies in handling personnel problems in much the same "way that they have been employed in school administration.

Many volumes have been written on the development and administra¬ tion of testing as an application of scientific procedures in the field of human engineering and other types of human relations. In many instances it is necessary to depend upon carefully developed criteria, and the use of only approximately accurate central tendencies to supplement more exact tools and techniques which are used to the extent that they will apply in the situation. While not always satisfactory to those who employ them, they are immeasurably more effective than opinion and guess work.

6

The Texas Journal of Science

TEACHING procedures

All members of the profession recognize the fact that, regardless of how well all other factors involved in the educational program may com¬ pare with an ideal pattern, no worthwhile objective can be achieved until the child for whom the whole agency has been developed has been person¬ ally benefited by the provision which has been made for his educational development. To manipulate the program so as to insure that it will con¬ tribute the greatest possible assistance to his proper development requires effective teaching procedures. Many of the most effective procedures have been discovered through scientific investigation and through trial in the laboratory of classroom activities.

Scientific measurements have proven that enormous improvement in the effectiveness of teaching and learning have resulted from the employ¬ ment of some modern methods which have been given the approval of re¬ search investigators. It has been possible to prove that teaching can be made fifty per cent more effective in some areas by the utilization of audio-visual aids as a supplement to other means or techniques which are generally employed in such situations. The time and effort needed to learn to spell and read have been reduced to a small fraction of that required a genera¬ tion ago. Hundreds of skills in all phases of educational growth are now mastered with far greater proficiency and much greater economy than that which resulted from unscientific procedures a few decades ago.

All of this saving in time and effort and in improvement of outcomes has made it possible for us to realize enormous dividends on our investment in education as compared with the outcomes from hit or miss teaching which is too often practiced, even after more effective procedures have been demonstrated.

CONCLUSION

The instances of the application of science and scientific methods in education which have been mentioned in this paper are only a few examples of the research activities which are carried on in Texas and elsewhere in an attempt to assist education in doing a better job in the preparation of better equipped and better motivated citizens of the state and the nation.

Texas has increased its financial support to education several hundred per cent within the past quarter of a century. It has a right to expect greatly increased dividends on its investment. The writer believes that Texas educators will keep faith with their state, and that there will be no cause to regret having given this profession such a favorable vote of con¬ fidence. It is a challenge which the profession cannot afford to ignore.

It has been proven that where greater support has been given to edu¬ cation greater material prosperity has come to all individuals and institu¬ tions in the areas involved. This kind of wealth will without doubt repay Texas many times over for its investment in its educational institutions. But in the opinion of the writer, financial dividends or material rewards will be paled into relative insignificance by the profits in the form of social, moral, and spiritual values which Texas has a right to expect as a result of the kind of training and guidance this increased investment will enable education to provide for the youth of today, who will be the leaders in all walks of life tomorrow. The employment of science in the improvement of the outcomes of educational endeavors will certainly contribute a very

What Should Texas Expect From Range Conservation 7

large share of the benefits to be realized by the state in return for it;s invest¬ ment.

If science in education can train students to think, plan, and work in harmony with scientific principles and techniques, the contribution of science in education will not end when the day arrives for the student to be sepa¬ rated from school. He will be a student all of his life, and will be able to chart his career so as to achieve the most happiness for himself and his dependents, and to contribute the greatest values to society which fostered his preparation for a happy, useful life.

WHAT SHOULD TEXAS EXPECT FROM RANGE CONSERVATION

By B. W. Allred Chief, Regional Range Division Soil Conservation Service Fort Worth, Texas

INTRODUCTION

Texas has the land and climatic resources to double and perhaps treble its present grass resources. This great improvement will become a reality when the following accomplishments have been achieved on all land:

1. Rangeland grazed tolerantly and restored to the desired condition. 2. Eighty to ninety million acres of trees, brush and weeds satisfactorily controlled, 3. Neces¬ sary developments for livestock and grassland management ,such as : a. Fencing, b. Stock water, c. Water conservation measures, d. Corrals and feeding con¬ veniences. 4. Artificial seeding of a. Eight million acres of abandoned farmlands, b. Fifteen million acres of low condition rangelands. 5. Supplies of home grown and commercial supplementary feeds. 6. Necessary cooperative action on part of landowners and public.

There are about 116 million acres of native grazing land on which these practices are wholly or partially needed. This acreage of Texas grass¬ land is as large as the total area of California.

Over half of the yearly forage for Texas livestock comes from native grass. There are about seven million cattle, seven million sheep, 2.4 million goats and three million horses and mules. Also, each year about 13 million pounds of dressed meat comes from deer, small game animals, and game birds most of which live all or part of the year on grasslands.

Quantity and quality of range vegetation goes downward as range condition goes from excellent to poor condition. This is indicated in Table 1.

TABLE 1'“'

COMPARATIVE PRODUCTIVITY OF SITES AND CONDITION CLASSES

Fort Worth, Texas 1946

Percent of Climax VALLEY SITE UPLAND SITE RIDGE SITE Vegetation in Each Lbs. of Vegetation Lbs. of Vegetation Lbs. of Vegetation

Condition of Class 100%	Climax	Other	Climax	Other	Climax	Other
Excellent _ 75%	5000	.....	3000	....	2000	....
Good _ 50%	..... 3900	200	2200	300	1400	125
Fair _ 25%	_ 2700	700	1700	225	900	310
Poor _	_ 1600	900	750	250	400	308

* Weights were taken in October.

The Texas Journal of Science

Pioneering Texans found great variety in kind and productivity of the original plant communities from the forests in humid East Texas to the arid plateau grasslands of the Trans-Pecos.

All Texas grasslands provide nourishing forage when . plants are green. West Texas grazing plants cure out in the dry air and lose less of their summer nutrients than summer-growing plants in eastern Texas. More protein or more green winter supplementary pastures are needed in eastern Texas than are required in the West.

INCREASE OF WOODY VEGETATION

Waste trees and brush are taking over land in Texas faster than it can be cleared. There are 80 to 90 million acres of these plants. The woods are getting deeper every year.

It is estimated that mesquite has taken over 5 5,000,000 acres, cedar 18,000,000 and creosote bush 16,300,000 acres during the last 75 years.

Also there are about 20 million acres of live oak and 9 million acres of postoak and blackjack oak. These oaks have not invaded far beyond their original outposts, but have increased in density as much as two or three hundred per cent in many areas. Liveoak provides considerable good forage and small amounts are desirable.

Other woody plants taking over profitable rangelands are tarbush 12,100,000 acres; sand sagebrush 6,400,000; shinnery oak 8,800,000; guajillo 6,800,000; huisache 6,3 80,000 and wild rose 40,000 acres. Guajillo is a good forage plant. It has increased as grass stands have been reduced.

In addition to those acreages, mesquite will take over 300,000 acres this year, cedar 2 5,000, huisache 20,000 and sand sagebrush 10,000.

Creosote bush will creep in over 5,000 more acres, liveoak 1,600, shinnery oak 1,800, guajillo 1,500, tarbush 3,000 and wild rose 500.

On acres already established, mesquite will strengthen its strangle hold by five per cent on 10,000,000 acres, cedar on 1,500,000, creosote bush 1,000,000, liveoak 500,000, shinnery oak 75,000, guajillo 21,500, huisache 680,000, tarbush 700,000, wild rose 10,000 and sand sagebrush 100,000.

Control of brush and trees must be resolved through good range man¬ agement, mechanical and chemical controls and artificial range seeding.

Tree dozing, brush cutting, cabling and ploughing, have all given good results, but original benefits are shortlived except where proper methods for controlling sprouts by machines or goats or chemicals have been used. Original costs run from $1 to $4 per acre for cabling; $4 and $5 per acre for brush cutting; $5 to $20 per acre for tree dozing and ploughing. Acre cost of follow-up in sprout control has been cut to 2 5c to $1 per acre per year where brush cutting maintainers are being used. Correct use of goats on oak sprouts has cut maintenance costs on several ranches.

Among chemical controls kerosene has been most widely used. Costs run from $7 to $16 per acre. Ninety per cent of treated trees have died in some instances, but smaller rates of kill are more common.

Sand sagebrush can be killed with properly applied 2,4-D at a cost of $2 per acre.

The increase in grass production after killing sagebrush may run from 2 5 to 100 per cent. The deep-rooted sand sagebrush competes stubbornly with grass for moisture. Once established it resists competition from grasses. Sand sagebrush removal is imperative before a quick improvement can be

What Should Texas Expect From Range Conservation

9

expected. Rested sagebrush and scrub oak ranges improve very slowly unless brush rccts are killed.

Response of grass production following clearing of brush varies by areas. Grass improvement following sagebrush control is spectacular. In the High Plains and Rolling Red Plains the increase is much less. Removal of dense stands of mesquite on the Spur Experiment Station has only brought about a 1 5 per cent greater beef yield compared to untreated areas.

Brush removal with the deep plough in the Rio Grande Plains has proved very satisfactory in terms of immediate forage production. On the R. Hinnant ranch east of Laredo, Texas, and Robert Briggs' ranch east of Catarina, the grass yield was increased several hundred per cent in one year. Dense brush thickets covered both areas and very little grass could be found.

REVEGETATION— -NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL

On 116 million acres of native grazing land most of which is in less than excellent condition, natural revegetation is the means by which the largest good will come. Where brush is not a serious problem and where ranges are in excellent, good or well into fair condition, sufficient plants will be presented for natural revegetation. On these condition classes most new growth will originate from rootstocks, tillers and stolons. Mature, sod¬ forming Indiangrass, big bluestem, sideoats, grama, tobosa, and seacoast blue- stem may increase 2 to 6 inches outward from each side in a growing season. With tillering grasses like blue grama, little bluestem, Texas winter- grass, tall dropseed and pink pappasgrass, the outward growth may be to 2 inches per year from each side. Other especially active sod formers may spread from 2 inches to 6 feet per year. Some of these are: Buffalograss, curlymesquite, vinemesquite, and western wheatgrass.

Some reproduction from seed occurs on ranges in higher condition classes but generally this type of stand improvement is far less important than extension from vegetative parts. Many seedlings sprout but live only a short time and die of com.petition from established plants. Often little bluestem, in climax stands, produces as many as 40-100 seedlings per square yard, but practically all die before fall. Grasses of the following species produce numerous seedlings under favorable conditions: Little bluestem, splitbeard bluestem, broomsedge ‘bluestem, silver bluestem, pinhole bluestem, cane bluestem and New Mexico bluestem, all species of the following genuses: Aristida, Stipa, Trachypogoit, Bromus, Heteropogon, Pappophorum, Chloris, Trichloris, Cenchrus, ’bet aria and Paspalum.

Artificial seeding of many ranges in poor and low, fair condition may often prove profitable but too little is known about the complex job. Nat¬ ural reseeding is best in humid areas, flood plains, subirrigated, gravelly, rocky or sandy sites. It is most difficult in dry regions, where blowing is a problem, and on dry heavy soils.

Natural seeding is better on moderately grazed summer rested ranges than on heavily grazed or summer grazed areas. It is rare on heavily used ranges.

Following are results of natural seeding on a few Texas ranches:

Richardson ranch, Jacksboro, Texas. Range in fair condition. The number of one and two year old plants per square yard was: Texas winter- grass- — 6; little bluestem— 24. Figures are average for four separate plots. Range has been grazed moderately yearlong for four years.

10

The Texas Journal of Science

Gage-Catto RaiKJi, Marfa, Texas. There were from 5 to IS cane bluestem seedlings in threeawn-burrograss sod, but none on bare ground. Some burrograss -and purple threeawn seedlings were found on bare ground. These were ranges in poor and fair condition but had been rested last two summers and carried full quota cattle in winter.

Of the John Royal ranch, Menard, Texas, a chalky hill side of S acres had numerous little bluestem plants 1 and 2 years old, about 40 plants per square yard. Seventy-five per cent of them were seedlings and year-old plants.

In some brush cleared bottoms on the ranch, in two years Indiangrass increased 200 per cent, Texas wintergrass and Canada wildrye 300 percent and curlymesquite improved 50 per cent in cover and the vigor is better. Rainfall absorption is high. Grazing was year-long on curlymesquite but bluestem and Indiangrass were rested in summer.

Soil conservation districts have specialized in seeding worn out farm land and depleted ranges with native grasses. In many cases, adapted in¬ troduced grasses have been planted on old farm land to control erosion and to provide extra forage.

There is considerable variety in kinds of Texas grasslands, due to sig-

PROTECTIVE VALUE OF RANGE COVER IN PREVENTING SOIL SPLASH DURING RAINS i44.oooa
1 ^ »UUv 120.000 1 1 1 mo AAA	r
Y
~ lOo.OOU o ^ 96.000 QC UJ ^ 84.000 Q LU ^ - 72.000 a! 60.000 C/) ~ 48.000 8 Li_ 36.000 o m 24.000 _J 12.000	\
\
		I
1
	\
	\
	\
	\ X
“Elt" 0	1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 LBS, OF FORAGE S LITTER PER ACRE,,.,„,

1. Chart No. 1. "Protective value of range cover in preventing soil splash during rains.”

What Should Texas Expect From Range Conservation

11

nificant variations in climate, soil, elevation, and temperature. Soil conser¬ vation districts plant native and introduced species that are locally adapted.

MORE RAIN SOAKS IN WHERE RANGE COVER IS GOOD

There is a direct correlation between amount of soil splash and rate of rainfall penetration and amount of forage and litter on the range. Field checks have been made on important range sites in the Rio Grande Plains near Carrizo Springs, Trans-Pecos near Pecos, Edwards Plateau near San Angelo, Grand Prairie near Fort Worth, Western Cross Timbers near Jacks- boro. Rolling Red Plains near Cheyenne, Oklahoma, Fligh Plains near Big Spring and Amarillo.

Ranges with most cover had the best soil protection and moisture intake was much faster on all areas evaluated. Also there was a close correlation between soil splash and moisture absorption and range condition. Ranges in excellent condition produce the most forage and generally have more litter per acre than ranges in lower condition classes.

Charts 1 and 2 show the effects of different amounts of cover on mois¬ ture absorption and soil splash. The trend has been similar in all areas eval¬ uated. Therefore charts 1 and 2 generally are indications of what happened

2. Chart No. 2. '"Effect of various amounts of cover on infiltration of rainfall into the soil.”

12

The Texas Journal of Science

at Amarillo and elsewhere. Hourly moisture intake was 3/1*0 inches on bare ground. On range in low fair condition with 800 pounds of vegetation per acre, the soil soaked up one inch per hour. On a range in low good condition with 2200 pounds of cover per acre, water was absorbed at rate of 8.4 inches per hour. The range in low excellent condition produced nearly 6,000 pounds of cover per acre but hourly moisture absorption was 9.3 inches. Most all of the evaluations show that from 2,000 to 3,000 pounds of well- distributed cover to the acre is adequate for soil and water conservation.

On bare ground soil splash amounted to 72 tons per acre. It was only 3 5 tons where cover weighed 1,200 pounds an acre. It was reduced to 7 tons an acre when cover weighed 2,200 pounds and was only 3 tons an acre when cover weighed 3,300 pounds and splash dropped to nothing when cover weighed 4,800 pounds an acre. Soil is adequately protected when splash is not over 6 tons per acre.

These valuations revealed the singular role of algae and lichens in water¬ proofing the soil surface. At first runoff is high and soil splash slight. Con¬ tinuous peppering by heavy raindrops eventually dislodges part of the pro¬ tective coat and soil splash is increased. Algae covering is greater on lightly grazed or protected ranges.

Algae and lichens serve as pioneering plants and provide a place for seeds to germinate and grow because moisture under algae is generally higher

than on bare ground.

AN ADVENTURE COOPERATION

It is too late for mere approval of soil conservation. It is time for energetic action. Averting famine is the unifying compulsion of today, and

3. This range is in excellent condition. Plant cover is made up of 75 to 100 per cent climax or original plants. Forage production and soil protection are maintained at highest levels. No more than 50 per cent of the annual growth should be grazed.

What Should Texas Expect From Range Conservation

13

4. The range here is in good condition, with 50 to 75 per cent of vegeta¬ tion composed of climax plants. Production is two-thirds or less of maximum and soil protection is adequate as long as 50 per cent of the yearly plant growth is left.

5. This range is in fair condition, with 2 5 to 50 per cent of vegetation composed of climax plants. Forage production is generally less than half of maximum. No more than half of the climax plants should be grazed. Total forage production is often inadequate to protect the soil on this site when the range is in fair range condition.

14

The Texas Journal of Science

more can be done to activate the job than ever before.

Of the major problems outlined^ more are truly social than technical. No amount of brilliant scientific knowledge is of much value until the land- owners become so interested that they will put the knowledge to use. Under a democracy where people are self -ruling they can mobilize force and action in such an efficient way that no others could possibly do, because they are planning and managing to better their own resources. They are the only ones under our democracy who have the right to do it.

Ninety per cent of Texas is covered with self-ruling democratic soil conservation districts. Texas soil conservation district cooperators already have about 20 million acres of grazing land planned for conservation. On a good many acres the better grasses are thickening and erosion is becoming less. Some ranges have improved 2 5 to 50 per cent in 4 to 8 years. Nearly one million acres of poor farmland have been seeded .to native and intro¬ duced grasses. These new acres will graze 80 to 90 thousand head of cattle each year.

6. This range is in poor condition. None to 2 5 per cent of the plants are climax or original kinds. Production is generally 2 5 per cent, or less, of maximum. No more than 50 per cent of the climax plants should be grazed. Total forage production on this site is generally inadequate for soil protection when ranges are in poor condition. When there are no longer enough plants left to reseed the range, seed of such plants must be artificially introduced to hasten recovery.

What Texas Should Expect From Forest Conservation

15

WHAT TEXAS SHOULD EXPECT FROM FOREST CONSERVATION

A. D. Folweiler Director, Texas Forest Service

. The A. and M. College of Texas

The word "forestry” will be substituted for "forest conservation” in this paper because it is a synonym and is the briefer term. Forestry has drawn on most, if not all, of the pure and applied sciences. It is an art as well as a science and is concerned with the continuous production of timber on the same unit area of land. This paper will be primarily concerned with forestry as a form of land use.

Forestry deals with a renewable natural resource, i.e., timber. It is based on plant ecology, pedology, entomology, botany, plant physiology, plant pathology, and genetics. At least a century ago European foresters developed forest management techniques applicable to the Continent and to Scanda- navia. Many of the techniques were adopted, without modification in the United States. With climatic and edaphic environment in the United States considerably different from the cool climate of Europe, adaptations were necessary. With the experience of the Europeans behind them, however, foresters in the United States were able to make rapid progress in develop¬ ing procedures for sustained timber production in the several regions of the country.

The South was one of the last regions to adopt forest management. Today the South is recognized as having the most favorable environment for the production of timber, on a land unit basis, in the United States. The only exception is the Pacific Northwest region where rainfall ranges from 60” to 100” per year. Within a relatively short period of time, the attitude of the southern forest products industries, and the public as well, has changed from one of either apathy or antagonism toward forestry to one of consid¬ erable interest. This is because it has become increasingly evident that forest land in the South is capable of continually producing a renewable resource, i.e,, timber of considerable present and potential value.

For the successful practice of forestry, at least two things are essential. These are the control of forest fires and the control of plant succession achieved largely through the control of cutting practices. Forest fire con¬ trol is entirely a matter of applied engineering. The control of plant suc¬ cession, however, requires considerable skill so that the timber stands will be treated in a manner that will produce the results desired by the practic¬ ing forester. As in any enterprise where man is pitted against an environ¬ ment not subject to complete control, as well as being unpredictable, invari¬ able success in forestry is difficult. For example, in the pine area west of the Mississippi River there was a marked deficiency of precipitation in 1947 and 1948. In the fall of 1946, there was an abundant crop of pine mast. This produced innumerable pine seedlings in the pine area in the spring of 1947. There were also approximately 40,000,000 seedlings planted in the aforementioned area in the spring of 1947. The mortality of the natural as well as planted reproduction varied from 90% to 100%. This is cited to illustrate that failures in reforestation occur not because of any lack of technique, but due to failure of an environmental factor, chiefly rainfall. Sometimes nature is more cooperative.

16

The Texas Journal of Science

If forestry is considered from the standpoint of land use, then there is more to it than the mere production of a flow resource, i.e., timber. Well managed forests develop a vegetal cover that is conducive to control of erosion and ground water storage by reduction of runoff due to maintenance of the surface soil in a permeable condition. Water, both surface and ground, is becoming of increasing importance as a factor in industrial expansion even in humid Southeast Texas. There is abundant evidence that crops of annuals that require row tillage, as for example cotton, have contributed no small degree to soil erosion and subsequent silting of streams. Cellulose fibers are the end result of cotton culture. On the inferior hill soils, on the average only 150 pounds of cotton cellulose are produced annually per acre. The same sites will produce 700-1600 pounds of usable wood cellulose an¬ nually with little or no soil erosion and diminished runoff when there is forest management.

CONTRASTING FOREST TYPES IN TEXAS

Texas has two broad vegetational forms, viz., eastern and western. The dividing line is approximately the 98th meridian. In extreme East Texas, say Lufkin, and extreme West Texas, say the Davis Mountains, the respec¬ tive forest vegetational patterns are typically those of the southeastern and the southwestern parts of the United States. From both an area and economic standpoint, the eastern forests are much more important than the western. For this reason much more attention has been paid by foresters to the eastern forests than to the western types. A discussion of West Texas forest conservation must be mostly in an abstract way rather than one gained from extensive experience.

WEST TEXAS

Trees have been used for windbreaks and shelterbelts in the High Plains area. Their usefulness has been established. Techniques for the estab¬ lishment of windbreaks have been developed and demonstrated. Whether more windbreaks are established will be determined entirely by the people who live there and the public agencies that work with them in the develop¬ ment of their land uses policies and practices- Trees and shrubs for windbreak establishment can be made available either through private or public nur¬ series. For the present, the windbreak is the only contribution that forestry can make to the High Plains region.

The cedar breaks, an area of approximately 5,000,000 acres, can be referred to as a forest region because the vegetal covering is mountain cedar (Juniperus mexicana). Most of the residents of the area, i.e., the Edwards Plateau, regard the species as a noxious one, largely because it invades areas that formerly were reputedly stocked with range grasses. Very few land- owners have an interest in maintaining a stand of cedar. It is the published opinion of the Soil Conservation Service, moreover, that from the stand¬ point of maintenance of a soil cover for underground water storage, cedar is considerably inferior to grass. There is no denying the fact that the prin¬ cipal known use of mountain cedar is for fence posts. From information currently available, forestry can contribute very little to the economy of the cedar breaks area in the immediate future.

Some of the mountains of West Texas, i.e., the Trans-Pecos area, have produced stands of timber of commercial value. Wood used in the con-

What Texas Should Expect From Forest Conservation

17

struction of Ft. Davis, for example, was sawn from ponderosa pine timber growing in the nearby Davis Mountains. Ponderosa pine, however, is a species that grows very slowly as compared with the pines of East Texas. The fact remains that there seems to be no pressure to use the area suitable for ponderosa pine production for other purposes. With control of fire and grazing, it should be possible to grow timber of commercial value in some of the rugged environment of the Trans-Pecos. It is doubtful whether forests and forestry will ever make an important contribution to the econ¬ omy of West Texas, but forestry practice on some of the forest lands can make available a locally scarce commodity, i.e., timber, as well as aid in the control of runoff and erosion.

east TEXAS

The humid East Texas forest region can be readily divided into two areas or forest types, viz., the post oak belt of approximately 4^/4 million acres of forest land and the pine belt of almost 10% million acres.

The post oak belt of East Texas, situated just west of the pine belt, occupies roughly 5,000,000 acres of land that supports a deciduous forest that has been heavily cut over for fuel and fence posts for generations. It has never had the economic importance of the East Texas pine area. There is today no clearly defined land use for the post oak belt. The lighter soils of the area seem to be capable of growing pine timber. It has been fairly well established, moreover, that there should be a soil cover of some sort maintained to reduce excessive runoff and subsequent erosion. The tendency of landowners in the post oak area seems to be to convert the area into range. This may be the best use for some of the area, but it is questionable whether it is the highest use for all of the area’s soils of sub-marginal agri¬ cultural value. It is likely that forestry can and should be practiced on some of the lands. What species of economic importance can and should be grown can be determined only by investigation. As of this writing, no steps have been taken to obtain answers to the question of the place that foresstry should have in the post oak belt.

The pine belt of approximately 100 miles in width lying adjacent to Louisiana and Arkansas is by far the most productive forest area of the state. In the area, almost 60% of the land can be classified as forest land. A large part of the economy of the area is founded on timber. The future economic health of the area will be closely related to the productivity of the forest land. Petroleum and natural gas production today play an impor¬ tant part in the area’s economy, but both are non-renewable natural re¬ sources of limited quantities. If forestry were practiced on the lands of East Texas suitable for pine timber production, and that includes all or parts of 40 East Texas counties, the timber resources could be doubled and perhaps trebled within twenty years. All that would be required would be the appli¬ cation of techniques now known and proven to be economically feasible.

Until relatively recently, it was quite common to think of timber resources in terms merely of so many board feet of lumber. Today the forests of East Texas are thought of increasingly as producing a renewable resource usable not only for lumber but rather as a crop of perennials 100 feet tall usable for a host of other things such as pulpwood for paper and containers, pulpwood for conversion into rayon, for plywood, for wallboard, for poles for transmission lines of public utilities, for ties for railroads, for chemical conversion into plastics and wood sugars suitable for animal feed,

18

The Texas Journal of Science

and last but not least, in its dynamic potentialities, ethyl alcohol. The chemi¬ cal conversion of wood today is based on knowledge of the characteristics of the cellulose molecule. Lignin is still a chemical mystery to the extent that its characteristics are unknown. It is merely a matter of time, however, before the chemical qualities of lignin will be known, thus increasing the usefulness of wood for chemical conversion.

It is in the pine belt of East Texas that genetics can be applied to a much greater degree than has been the case to date. As a matter of fact, genetics has been very largely ignored in southern forestry practice. For many years public agencies have advocated the so-called ^'selection” system of cutting. In practice it has tended to remove the most vigorous trees in a stand. The Swedes have clearly demonstrated that the productivity of forest land can best be attained by arranging the timber fellings so that the most vigorous trees will be available for reproducing the stand. Individual selec¬ tion for reproduction. purposes has been a generally accepted practice in the animal industries. Superior progeny have resulted from careful selection of parents. The Swedes deliberately sought to increase the quality of the trees in their forests' by application of the basic principles of genetics. They have been exteremely successful in their efforts. There has been some publicity to the more spectacular part of forest genetics, i.e., the development of hybrids. At the Eddy Tree Breeding Institute in California some pine hybrids have been produced. It is likely, however, that in the South there will be greater progress in the immediate future toward raising forest land unit productivity if simple rules of good genetics are followed rather than de¬ velop hybrids whose reproduction will be necessarily slow. All that is re¬ quired is the selection of high-quality vigorous trees to serve as sources of seed for the Fi generation.

There is some concern among foresters on the manner in which hard¬ woods are invading the pine forests. It is very likely that fire can be used as a silvicultural tool to maintain pine in a dominant ecological position. If ecological succession were permitted to follow its natural course in the pine forests of East Texas, the oak-hickory climax would no doubt be at¬ tained. Unfortunately the climax type is economically inferior to the sub¬ climax pine type. Research now being done by public agencies should soon supply the answer to the questions (a) is fire a useful and economic tool for maintaining pine stands and (b) if it is, then just how should it be applied?

The bottleneck to having forestry widely practiced and generally ac¬ cepted so that there will be more abundant timber production is the matter of land tenure, i.e., relationship between the individual and the land. The current concept of property rights gives to- the owner absolute rights over his land. In East Texas alone, 5 8,000 owners of forest land are involved. They are the owners of parcels of land varying from 5 acres to 600,000 acres. Their attitude toward their forest land ranges all the way from abso¬ lute indifference toward the maintenance of the productivity of the land to the extent of exercising no control whatsoever in the matter of forest fires and cutting practices, to enthusiasm, even to the extent of being un¬ economic, in forest fire control, cutting control, and timber stand improve¬ ment.

To raise the unit area productivity of East Texas timber lands requires a tremendous amount of either (a) education of the individual landowners

What Texas Should Expect From Forest Conservation

19

to the economic opportunities in timber production or (b) some sort of self-imposed private regulation or public regulation of cutting practices. The great majority of the landowners favor the control of forest :dres. Few, however, practice adequate control over the manner in which their timber is harvested. The fact remains that there can be much more timber grown in the East Texas pine belt than is being grown there today. It is highly desirable to grow timber on the land suited for it in order to sustain the economy of the area at such future time when the stock pile of the non¬ renewable resources, petroleum and natural gas, is depleted. Timber is an important raw material adaptable to change in shape by physical processes and through chemical conversion. This is nothing new. It is repeated here for the purpose of again mentioning what has been stated elsewhere in this paper, viz., that the East Texas forests will never produce abundantly until there is adequate control of forest fires and vegetal succession. Today there is not even adequate forest fire control, the bed-rock of forestry. There are approximately 2,000,000 acres of the pine belt, or one-fifth of the area, that have inadequate or no forest fire control facilities. A start has been made toward the education of the landowners in improving their attitude toward their forest land. Most of the larger forest land units are under some degree of control of fires and cutting practices. But a great deal re¬ mains to be done in achieving control of vegetal succession by the indi¬ vidual landowners who own relatively small parcels of land of 50 to 500 acres. The educational process is a slow and painstaking one. If the East Texas pine lands are to even approach their production potential for timber, then there must be greater public recognition of the intrinsic value of timber as a form of raw material for industry. Timber is not only a form of wealth to the owner, but also an important raw material for industry.

Foresters in public and private employ in Texas are applying directly cr indirectly, the techniques that have been developed in forest conserva¬ tion. In the most productive forest area of Texas, the techniques are being applied, in varying degrees of intensity, to only one- third of the IOV2 million acres. On the remaining two-thirds, there is nothing being done by the land- owners to sustain or increase the productivity of the forest land. The for¬ estry potential in the remainder of the State’s forest area outside of the East Texas pine belt is an unknown quantity, especially as it applies to the post oak, cross-timbers, cedar breaks, and mountain forests. The fact remains that, gauged by expenditures in other southern states, the generally accepted public responsibility of forest fire control in inadequately financed in Texas. It can be argued that landowners will be apathetic toward forestry practices until there is adequate protection from the risk of having the timber de¬ stroyed by fire. This sort of reasoning tends to move in a vicious circle that can be broken only by the landowners and the public when they make up their minds that the practice of forestry has as many economic advantages as the production of cattle or row crops. The techniques of timber pro¬ duction are available to those who wish to use them.

20

The Texas Journal of Science

WHAT SHOULD TEXAS EXPECT FROM IRRIGATION M, A. Hartman

Irrigation is artificially applying water to land. The exact date man started irrigating is not known but apparently it was not long after he started cultivating. One theory, based on archeological discoveries, is that the human race and civilization did not advance until cultivation and irri- gation were begun. The assumption is that civilization progressed after man had time to spend on some of the finer arts such as painting and pottery making. This spare time was not available until he started intensively farm¬ ing land and making a living did not require all of his time. Cultivation and irrigation also meant that man stayed in one place and did not have to move when natural foods were consumed.

Historians and archeologists differ as to what part of the world irriga¬ tion was first practiced. This is not as important as what type was -prac¬ ticed, why it was practiced, and whether it was beneficial use of land and water. Irrigation has been practiced for many centuries in the Nile Valley, in Mesopotamia, in China, as well as in some sections of the Americas by the American Indians. Genesis 2:10 may be an early Biblical reference, as it says: "And a river went out of Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads.”

Two of the ancient methods consisted of allowing the water to flow over the land and thereby providing an opportunity for infiltration; and holding the water on the land by terraces or dikes forming closed basins that allowed the water to penetrate. These two methods are still used by most people. Modern irrigators also apply some water with various types of rain simulators, and a very small amount of water is applied with porous underground pipe.

As the need for food and fiber increased beyond that readily available, man increased the supply by irrigating hitherto unused land, just as modern India is rapidly expanding its irrigated area in an attempt to produce more for its rapidly increasing population.

The practical value of this method of agriculture is indicated by the many centuries that it has been practiced in the Nile Valley and in China. Even in our own state, records of some of the old missions in the Rio Grand Valley near El Paso, Texas, show that some of that land has been successfully irrigated for 400 years. This land still produces over two bales of cotton per acre if it is farmed the conservation way.

The intent and purpose of irrigation is to produce agricultural products but our present practices often disregard techniques and procedures based on scientific principles and proven facts and literally just apply water to land. Such farm irrigation does not properly consider land, water and plants. The result is: (1) a waste of water through surface runoff and deep percolation; (2) land deterioration due to water-logging, leaching and an accumulation of harmful salts; (3) decreased net profits due to an in¬ crease in labor required per unit of agricultural products and a decrease in volume of crop produced, primarily due to a poor balance or relationship of the basic factors required to produce plants. Improper water use of this kind is exploitation of natural resources (soil and water) and encourages waste and land deterioration.

What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation

21

Fig. 1 — -Improper irrigation caused by long runs, steep grade and applying too much water. Result is erosion, unequal distribution of water, leaching at lower end and wasting water at lower end by surface runoff.

Fig. 2- — -Soil is heavy, tight clay, being irrigated in Pecos River Valley. Cotton failed, soil is very saline and cloddy, with character of water available for irrigation. This soil is unsuitable for cultivation to crops but may be utilized for production of salt-tolerant grasses.

22

The Texas Journal of Science

Conservation irrigation on the other hand is uniform application of required amounts of water without waste or erosion; and, in addition to providing for the maximum use of rainfall and safe disposal of the excess, it maintains soil productivity. Conservation irrigation makes beneficial use of irrigation water as well as rainwater. In practicing conservation irriga¬ tion, the following must be done:

1. Apply water uniformly. 2. Apply water without causing erosion. 3. Apply water in needed amounts, so as to prevent excessive leaching. 4. Prevent surface waste of this water. 5. Make maximum use of rainfall, 6. Adequately dispose of excess rain. 7. Maintain soil productivity.

This will result in wise use of soil and water resources with minimum waste and deterioration — in other words, permanent irrigation agriculture, which is what Texas can expect from science in irrigation.

This type of conservation is the goal of the Soil Conservation Service and its technicians who are assisting soil conservation districts in Texas. The Soil Conservation Districts through their supervisors and the district program and plan request the assistance of the Soil Conservation Service. They develop plans with individual farmers and their neighbors. The con¬ servation plans are based on an inventory of basic soil and water resources and farm management principles. The technical assistance that will result in permanent agriculture by making beneficial use of soil and water resources is provided by the .Soil Conservation Service through the soil conservation districts, which are strictly local self-governing farmer-controlled groups.

There are many phases of science that are involved in developing, apply¬ ing and maintaining a coordinated conservation program on irrigated land. These include mathematics, chemistry, physics, hydraulics, hydrology, soils,

Fig. 3 — Alfalfa drowned out on irrigated field because of uneven distribution of water. The excess water percolates downward, leaching the low areas and raising the water table.

What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation

23

&

Fig. 4— Field being irrigated after the land has been prepared for irrigation. Following irrigation, small high places are cut and low places filled before the crop is planted. The water is being used to locate small high and low places prior to planting.

Fig. 5 — Small equipment moving soil. This is how most farmers level their land.

24

The Texas Journal of Science

agronomy and mechanics. The scope of conservation irrigation can be seen from a brief discussion of some of the factors that must be considered in properly developing and correlating the seven major purposes that must be accomplished:

1. APPLY WATER UNIFORMLY. If the Same amount of water is to be applied on all of the areas in the field, it is necessary to know how fast water will be absorbed. This absorption rate or infiltration rate or perme¬ ability rate varies with soil type, soil condition, type of crop, as well as condition of the surface of the soil. The opportunity for infiltration must also be the same over the area. The amount that is needed will vary but all amounts need to be applied uniformly.

2. APPLY WATER WITHOUT CAUSING EROSION. Erosion or soil removal by flowing water not only removes some of the basic land resources from an area but also leaves the area too irregular for irrigation water to spread uniformly. Soil erosion by flowing water is affected by the speed or rate of flow, which in turn varies with the slope, size and shape of the stream, and the condition of the surface over which the water is flowing.

3. APPLY WATER IN NEEDED AMOUNTS SO AS TO PREVENT EXCESSIVE LEACHING. The amounts of water that are needed will depend on the depth of the root zone, the available water-holding capacity of the soil, the amount of harmful salts in the soil and water, the amount the crop is using in a week or month, the economic results expected and the time period be¬ tween irrigations. This requires field determinations of depth of root zone of various crops during various stages of growth by seasons, field determi¬ nation of amount of available plant water in the root zone and available plant water-holding capacity of the soil. Also required is adequate control

Fig. 6 — Irrigating cotton. Shows turnout box being shut down when water is about 100 feet from end of tab. A concrete block check. This check is constructed on the farm.

What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation

25

Fig. 7“— -Level rows being irrigated from turnout box and equalizing ditch. Water does not cover the top of the beds.

Fig. 8 — Checking moisture penetration while irrigating with a probe. • A probe can be used to check the depth of penetration and when the soil is wet in the root zone irrigation can be stopped.

26

The Texas Journal of Science

of the water so that the predetermined amount can be applied. This requires adequate delivery ditches with appurtenant water control structures such as gates, checks and turnouts.

4. PREVENT SURFACE WASTE OF WATER. Surface waste can occur from both evaporation and surface runoff. Excessive evaporation wastes water the same as surface runoff. Evaporation varies with temperature, humidity, wind movement and opportunity for evaporation. Surface conditions will greatly affect the opportunity for evaporation. Surface runoflf will vary with amount and rate of application, amount needed, method of application, and surface condition at time water is applied. In addition, the human element plays an important part in surface waste—Is water properly controlled by the irrigator?

5. MAKE MAXIMUM USE OF RAINFALL. Rainfall is the cheapest water the irrigation farmer receives. It is applied uniformly without cost. It must be kept from concentrating in low areas and the soil must be in condition to absorb the rain when it falls. Amount and intensity of rain expected by seasons of the year must be considered. Rainwater contains no harmful salts and should, therefore, be used to leach harmful salts out of the soil if they exist. This requires knowledge of the kind and amount of salts present, as well as subsurface drainage conditions.

6. ADEQUATELY DISPOSE OF EXCESS RAINWATER. After all of the rain¬ water that can be used is stored in the soil, and it continues to rain, the excess must be drained off either from the surface or through the soil profile. This requires information on crop needs, storage capacity of soils, sub¬ surface drainage conditions, surface drainage ditches and appurtenant struc¬ tures, expected or probable rainfall (both amount and intensity), and con¬ dition and pattern of the overall surface drainage.

7. MAINTAIN SOIL PRODUCTIVITY. For most economical crop produc¬ tion, a proper balance of the plant growth requirements must be maintained. Basically, plants require plant food, water, air, sunlight, temperature, and a place to grow. A satisfactory balance must be maintained between these basic requirements for maximum feasible plant production.

More efficient irrigation and increased crop yields are the returns which J. W. Pratt is getting since he began installing the needed conservation measures. In 1946 he developed a coordinated plan with the Toyah-Limpia Soil Conservation District at Pecos, Texas. These measures have increased his cotton yield 30 per cent. Using the same head of water, it takes about 2 5 per cent less time to irrigate 100 acres than it did before he started ap¬ plying proper practices. On the same acreage he, therefore, uses 2 5 per cent less water with 2 5 per cent less labor.

Lupe Flores, a cooperator of the El Paso-Hudspeth Soil Conservation District, near El Paso, Texas, increased his cotton and alfalfa yield 50 per cent on his 92 -acre farm, through a coordinated plan developed with the help of Soil Conservation Service technicians assisting the El Paso-Hudspeth Soil Conservation District in 1946. He applied a large part of the plan the first year and increased his cotton and alfalfa yields 50 per cent in 1947 over previous years.

M. F. McKnight of Hale Center, Texas, increased his wheat yields 40

per cent in 1948 after applying his conservation plan on his irrigated farm. This included an irrigation system that would uniformly apply his irriga¬ tion water without waste and erosion, and maintain his soil productivity^ with hubam sweetclover.

What Should Texas Expect From Irrigation

27

H I,-

I- 1'

^ If ^ ''V'.T’'', „^5; t*k

I III .-■ '‘ , 5^ '*

•’ I ill ' ' ;.''■ '-^/ulV I

."s Ilf '■ •-.- '. '•e^ ? ’ "' *■ ='••••' ^’ ;T'a' ■* -S

Fig. 9 — -Cattle grazing 20 -acre improved pasture. A mixture of alfalfa and crested wheatgrass was planted. Grazing has been at the rate of one cow

per acre for about six months.

Fig. 10 — Weighing second picking cotton grown on formerly idle land. In first picking, 48 acres in cotton produced 3 8 bales. Rest of 92- acre farm is in alfalfa.

28

The Texas Journal of Science

Jack Garrett, a cooperator with the Southmost Soil Conservation Dis¬ trict, near Harlingen, Texas, increased his cotton yield on 5 5 acres, and decreased his labor required to irrigate the land by at least 2 5 percent.

Based on the experiences of these and other farmers in soil conservation districts in Texas, such practices result in 2 5-50 per cent larger net profits. On an average, labor costs of irrigating are decreased 2 5 per cent. Twenty- five per cent less water is used. Per-acre yields of crops are increased from 2 5-50 per cent. The result is a sustained net income 25-50 per cent higher and beneficial use of soil and water resources with minimum waste and deterioration.

Conservation irrigation, or irrigation based on the best scientific infor¬ mation available, can do the following for Texas: Net agricultural income for Texas farmers can be increased because less labor is required to produce the crop and the value of the crop produced is increased. The exact amount to base such figures are cut of date. The 1939-1940 census data show about three-fourths of a million acres irrigated in Texas. Conservative estimates are that over a million acres were irrigated on the High Plains of Texas during 1948 and only one-fourth this much land was irrigated in 1940. This expansion has not been as phenomenal in other parts of the state as it has been on the High Plains, but irrigation in the rest of the state would only have had to be doubled in order for Texas to have two million acres now under irrigation. Conservation irrigation would therefore increase the net profits 2 5-50 per cent on two million acres.

This increase in net profits would be in addition to a saving in water. The amount of water that is used on two million acres of irrigated land would be reduced by 2 5 percent. This water, in some instances, could be used to irrigate additional land. In other instances it could be used to allevi¬ ate water shortages in industrial and urban areas.

CULTURAL SIGNITICANCE OF THE NAVAJO PROBLEM Floyd A. Pollock

Head of Department of Sociology Stephen F. Austin State College Nacogdoches, Texas

Located in Northeastern Arizona and extending across the borders into Northern New Mexico and Eastern Utah is an area of almost twenty-five thousand square miles, equal to that of West Virginia and almost three times that of Massachusetts. This vast stretch consists of semi-arid desert plateaus and mountain ranges varying in altitude from five thousand to ten thousand feet. It is weirdly beautiful in appearance, but drastically limited in water supply and in vegetation necessary for the sustenance of animal and human life. The thin soil is unable to produce adequate vegetation for the increasing flocks and it is now seriously threatened by erosion through overgrazing.

Living on the plains of this vast area is the largest tribe of Indians in the United States, the Navajo, which has increased from nine thousand in 1868 to an estimated sixty thousand in 1950. They have wrested a living through their herds of sheep and goats, small farm plots, their skillful weav-

Cultural Significance of the Navajo Problem 29

ing and silver-smithing, and the few occasional opportunities for day labor. Theirs is the story of a brave and colorful people facing a crisis which is tending toward a catastrophe through the natural increase of population and the "'seemingly inevitable” increase of horses, sheep, and goats. This crisis is developing although the population density is only two persons to the square mile.^

The Navajo problem is a complex combination of Indian heritage, Indian customs, and Indian ways of life, which are in conflict with the Navajo Indian Service’s scientific program of soil conservaticn and methods of social reform. The scene is a dramatic demonstration of the often self¬ contradictory process of social change which, largely through lack of fore¬ sight and future planning on the part of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, has brought critical social disorganization which is evident throughout the Reservation.

A survey, in the early 1930’s, revealed that there were over a m^illion head of livestock on the Navajo Reservation- The growth has been a gradual one and the Navajo are unable to comprehend what has been happening to their most important natural resource, the range.^

With the relatively swift multiplying of people and the seeming nec¬ essity of increasing the flocks, the grass has been gradually reduced and in some parts almost eliminated. An excess of animals caused a grass shortage. In pite of this shortage the Navajo population continued to grow and the size of flocks continued to increase, while at the same time the range be¬ came less able to cope with the burden placed upon it.

A second phase of the Navajo problem grows out of the program initiated by the United States Office of Indian Affairs, in 1933, in an at¬ tempt to solve the seemingly catastrophic condition of the ever increasing herds and flocks and the resultant soil erosion.

The main objects of the Navajo program are "human adjustment and land rehabilitation,” but in practice emphasis seemingly has been placed on land rather than upon human adjustment and rehabilitation.

The Navajo situation as a sociological problem centers around the group’s social-cultural valuves in conflict with enforced changes in their pastoral economy; an economy which is basic to Navajo civilization.

The sociological phases of the Navajo situation are closely related to the fact that under present conditions the Navajo have a very limited in¬ come. Furthermore, the specialization and limitations of the pastoral econ¬ omy of these Indians have become associated with fixed cultural patterns and uses. So long as the natural resources of the Navajo country could cope with the ever increasing number of animals on the Reservation, Navajo economy remained intact, but when the range was no longer plentiful and the land was wasting away, through the devastation process of soil erosion, the Navajo were suddenly confronted with a situation which was foreign to their daily routine of life. Basic then, to the situation, is the necessity of a conservation program to save the Navajo’s land. To the Navajo, the problem which they face is a strange paradoxical process. It is the policy of the Indian Service to develop a conservation program of saving the land as a means of saving the people, but the Navajo see only inconsistency in

iPhelps-Stokes Fund, The Navajo Indian Problem (New York; 1939), p. vii.

^Gehardt Laves, Land Management in the Navajo Area (Window Rock: Navajo Service School Bulletin No. 3, 1937), p. 2.

30

The Texas Journal of Science

the program since, to them, it has stressed the saving of the land regardless of the economic and social cost to the people.

The situation has developed into more than the necessity of a scientific plan of conserving the natural resources of the Reservation; there is need for the consideration of the human factor since the cultural and social ele¬ ments are also involved. As a rule, new social developments come slowly, and in due time a culture may make some definite changes without any break in its continuity. The core of Navajo culture is of an economic nature, based on a pastoral industry, and as such, under present conditions it has become comparatively unstable. The core of a culture is largely immune to direct disturbance, but it is bound to be indirectly affected by any impor¬ tant changes in the total cultural configuration. Normally these changes are of a sort which allows time for adjustment, but a sudden introduction of a new element into a culture, or a sudden change in the general routine of the life of the group, makes it difficult for a society to maintain its in¬ tegrity, and a serious disruption is likely to follow.

The Navajo have been so dependent on the natural resources of their country that they have tended to exploit their range, thus bringing about the problem of soil erosion. This situation has made it necessary for each family to have less land for its flocks; hence their basic economy of sheep culture has been disrupted, their culture pattern has been thrown out of balance, and because of the lack of ability to make a proper adjustment, these Indians have, to a certain extent, become disorganized. During the summer of 1937 the Navajo showed signs of great hostility to the Reser¬ vation policies, but by late fall the Indian Service reported that an air of tranquility had supplanted the turmoil of the previous summer months. However, the problems of horse roundups and the disposal of old and worth¬ less stock was far from being settled. In spite of the fact that many of the horses were so poor they could hardly stand and some staggered as they walked, the Indians expected a good price for them. When the Indians were paid only three dollars per head for their horses, they felt that they were being robbed; thus they became even more bitter toward the stock reduction policies.

While many of the horses that the Navajo were asked to sell were unproductive and of no particular use to their owners, they had a high prestige value to the Indians. For more than a century the social position of an ambitious young Navajo, desiring to raise himself in the esteem of his fellow tribesmen, depended largely upon his success in accumulating the largest possible number of horses. To let his horses go was to break this long tradition and to lower his own status. In Navajo society a collection of horses is equivalent to the orchids and candy which the young suitor in white man’s society presents to the lady of his choice. The prestige value of the horse persists among the Navajo; therefore, it was a difficult task to persuade the average Navajo to sell his surplus horses in order to make the grass on the range available for his sheep.

When the Indians realized that they were not only to be reduced to ten horses, but that in some districts each family was to be permitted to retain only three, their bewilderment turned to anger and hostility. Since the summer of 1939, some progress has been made in the removal of excess and non-productive horses on the Navajo Reservation, but the Indian Service is forced to carry this program through in the face of Navajo opposition and hostility.

Cultural Significance of the Navajo Problem

31

The depressed attitude of the Navajo is so obvious that the traders who have known them throughout the years are continually reminded of the changes which have taken place among these Indians during the last decade.

One trader made the following comment:

Conditions on the Navajo Reservation are the worst I have ever ^known. The biggest reason for this mess is too much theory and not enough practical common sense. The Navajo program may look all right on paper, but it certainly doesn’t work when you are dealing with human beings, s

Sheep and goats had been grazed on the poorest of ranges and many were considered unfit for human consumption. The field men, realizing this fact and evidently having little consideration for the feelings of the Indians, shot thousands of goats and left them in heaps to rot. In Navajo Canyon three thousand five hundred head were shot at one time,"^ Through¬ out the Reservation hundreds of goats ' and sheep were slaughtered before the eyes of the Navajo and left to decay where they had fallen, polluting the water of the area and befouling the air for miles around. This was a • lesson in economy which had only recently been introduced to the white man and one which the Indian could in no wise understand. Sheep and goats are basic to the Navajo culture; Navajo has always looked to them for their subsistence. Even though thousands of animals were not fit for human consumption,^ to the Navajo, shooting them and leaving them to rot was nothing less than barbarism and an inexcusable waste.

The poorer people owned many of the goats and they were the people who were easier to force into submission. The pressure was so great that in their ignorance they often sold below their quota. The selling of practi¬ cally all their goats, as was done by many, was a great mistake. The goat was the poor man’s only source of milk. A goat sold for only one dollar, which meant little toward buying goods, but having the goat to kill and eat meant much since it answered the question of the family food supply for several days.

Goat milk was widely used by both adults and children and was a valuable means of feeding orphan lambs. The loss of his native milk supply has resulted in an increase purchased of canned milk from the trader; but since many Navajo are unable to buy canned milk, thousands are without any milk supply at all. The last few years have revealed a noticeable in¬ crease of tuberculosis and illness among the Navajo children which, no doubt, is due in part to malnutrition and the lackof a proper milk supply,®

There is much to indicate that the Navajo— a once proud, happy people filled with the spirit of independence and security— are now in a stage of mental depression, A man who has worked a lifetime and has increased his flock to a thousand head, hoping to help his children get started in life, finds his flock reduced within a few years to two hundred head. Thus his income is cut down well over half, his status is lowered, and his feeling of security is gone. The Navajo’s spirit is broken, for his economy has been struck a vital blow. He continually worries, for he knowns not what he and his children will have to eat and wear. However, the Navajo’s concern is by no means limited to the material results of the loss of his flocks and herds. He sees in the reduction of his stock the serious problem which

®Harry Wetsel, trader. Interview by the writer, August 31, 1940.

Condipons of the Indians of the United States. Part 24 (Washington, D. C. : United States Printing Office, 1937), p. 17988.

5New Mexico Association of Indian Affairs, Urgent Navajo Problems (Santa Fe: New Mexi¬ co Association of Indian Affairs, 1940), p. 9.

32

The Texas Journal of Science

confronts the young people who desire to marry and go into the sheep business for themselvess. Although all the moral consequences which the Navajo attributes to the Government’s program may not be justified, it is a factor in the future outlook for Navajo youth in as much as this situa¬ tion has affected the attitudes of the young people. The quota of stock which a group may have is based on the family unit, so naturally this eliminates the possibility of the younger Navajo starting in the stock busi¬ ness. Furthermore, the Navajo have always been interested in accumulating livestock. They desire to be able to earmark some sheep when a child is born and have the offspring from those sheep become the property of that child. This system guarantees that when the child is ready to marry, a fair sized fllock will have already accumulated and the young couple will be assured prosperity and independence. As a result of the ycung people having little to do, and being unable to accumulate any livestock, their elders are aware of a change in attitude which seems to be taking place within this group. The following comments illustrate the cognizance of these changes:

Working for wages has been a bad thing for us, especially the young people. They don’t know anything about how to use their money and it isn’t long until the white man has it all. This is not the fault of the government in all respects, but taking our sheep ^nd paying wages made it impossible for our young people to go into the sheep business, but at the same time made it possible for them to have cars, liquor, go to the movies, and to associate with bad white people. This situation cer¬ tainly spoiled our people ; they didn’t learn these things gradually, but it came all at once ; maybe in twenty-five years from now it will be better for maybe by that time they will be used to it. When they had their sheep to look forward to, they were different, but now our young people haven’t their sheep industry and they seem to be a part of both the white man’s ways and the Navajo’s ways, and they don’t fit any place.®

The father of a large family has this to say:

Young people working for wages turn out to be no good. They spend all their money for foolishness and they are no good to their own people . . . They don’t learn to care for the sheep or how to farm, and if they are thrown out of work they just loaf and get into trouble . . . This thing is ruining our young people. When I was young, we talked about our homes, our flocks, and getting ahead, but now the young people haven’t anything to look forward to. Of course under these conditions we can expect our children to be idle and become lazy and crazy like the white young people do. A lot of young boys have nothing else to do but to get on a horse and ride around and get into mischief. Our children are a lot more immoral than they used to be ; there is a lot more common law marriage and illegitimacy too.'^

Basic to the Navajo-Federal conflict are two definitions of the situa¬ tion. The Federal Government has one definition; the Navajo Indians have another. But the administration’s definition has become the plan of action in conserving the Reservation range.

The group’s definition of the situation is handed down from the past to the present. This past definition becomes the basis for values and atti¬ tudes, be they economic, social, cultural, religious, or intellectual. Thus the definition of the situation is determined by pre-existing attitudes of the individual or the group. Consequently, they have a direct effect upon indi¬ vidual or group behavior. The old definition of the situation is based on set values of action only when the individual or the group is permitted to define the situation and act accordingly. In the case of present Navajo-Federal relations, the plan of action is not based on old values and attitudes which had been in the process of development for several generations. As a result of the Navajo’s pastoral culture, the Navajo had learned to place value upon the quantity rather than the quality of livestock. His status in society was largely determined by the number of sheep, horses, and goats that he owned. He acquired and wore the finest jewelry possible. The accumulation

“Frank Demon, Interview by the writer, August 29, 1940.

Cultural Significance of the Navajo Problem

33

of turquoise and silver was not only a means of saving, which satisfied his desire for security, but its display appeased his wish for recognition. The Federal Administration’s method of procedure in solving the problem has reversed the old plan of accumulation and calls for a drastic change in Navajo economy. To the Navajo it means an about-face; it is a reverse of procedure and of the old routine of life with little attention being given to the old values and attitudes.

The horse pattern carried with it not only the convenience of the horse as a means of transportation in the vast area of the Reservation, but the horse had come to have a high prestige value to the Indians, and as such their attitude toward the horse is one of great pride in a personal possession. The ambitious young Navajo, who seeks social position and desires to be held in high esteem by his fellow tribesmen, will attempt to accumlate a large number of horses. When a man owned twenty-five, fifty, or even a hundred head of horses, and could show no economic benefit for keeping more than three of them, he was compelled to give up something which had cultural value to him. To let their horses go was to break a long tra¬ dition and at the same time it lowered their status. The prestige value of the horse persisted in Navajo society; thus the Indian Service was dealing with something of an intangible nature which goes deeper than economic values when it attempted to persuade the Navajo to give up their horses.

The jewelry pattern among the Navajo is not only a means of saving, but the display of fine jewelry carries with it a certain amount of pride and prestige which appeals to the owner’s vanity. According to the traders, most of the Navajo have been forced to sell their silver and turquoise and many families which once possessed fine specimens of Navajo jewlery are now without any jewelry at all. This is a great loss to the Navajo since the social relationship developed around jewelry constitutes a pattern which is of both social and economic value. At one time the Navajo used his jewelry as a means of obtaining credit with the local trader, but in recent years these Indians have been unable to redeem their family heirlooms and the valuable silver belts, bracelets, and turquoise necklaces are not only passing from them but from the Reservation as well. The Navajo display of a wealth of jewelry is rapidly vanishing and with it passes much of the am¬ bition, pride, and dignity which has characterized this tri.be

The present development is not a normal outgrowth of cultural change in Navajo society, but it is a forced change of basic culture patterns. The Navajo people have little to which they can turn for a livelihood when they give up the long established cultural traits of their pastoral economy.

One of the chief difficulties of past as well as in the present admin¬ istrative policies when dealing with the Navajo has been an insufficient knowledge of their cultural background. There has been not only a notice¬ able lack of understanding of the Navajo’s cultural values and attitudes, but there is also absence of an appreciation of their realtion to the Navajo’s pastoral economy. Furthermore, there has been inadequate experience in the understanding of Navajo psychology and the principles involved in adhering to it when applying certain government regulations to the Navajo. These people are freedom loving, independent and self-reliant. They are too vigorous a people to be a subject nation with the routine of their daily lives controlled by many regulations and yet be happy.

All this gives rise to an extremely difficult human problem. The Navajo are psychologically different from the white man in their reactions to social

34

The Texas Journal of Science

and economic adjustment. Since they are ultra-conservative, they become bewildered and restless when social and economic pressure is forced upon them. There is a deep underlying psychological reaction on the part of the Navajo to the ever increasing pressure and infiltration of the white man’s cultural and economic influence. They are going through a period of cul¬ tural and economic change which in their present status will continue for many years.

In spite of the Government’s Reservation centered policies, there is no denying the fact that the Navajo is a minority group slowly but surely being engulfed by the continual pressure of the white man’s culture. To exist and survive the Navajo will have to work with the white man and will be compelled to accept many of the white man’s ways. To say that the Navajo can continue to be isolated and live apart from the white man is unreasonable and a blind ignoring of facts.

The Navajo have been considered by some to adopt readily new cus¬ toms, but they adopt new customs from the Spanish, the Mexican, and other groups because that which they accept fits into their culture. The acculturation which is now in process is coming slowly and is hard because it is coming through the process of pressure. John Collier, the former Com¬ missioner of Indian Affairs, had as an ideal the saving of the Indian by no longer forcing him to become a white man as the old policy had done. How¬ ever, basic to the whole reduction program was the pressure of a changing culture process which will more and more compel the Navajo to accept the white man’s ways of economy. This means that they will eventually accept a cash rather than a barter system and will then truly compete with the white man. When this day comes, the Navajo in order to exist will be forced to accept the white man’s civilization, and Collier’s methods in Navajo economy will have defeated his own philosophy.

The process of culture breakdown is at work among the Navajo. Cer¬ tain pressures are forcing a change in their customs and their ideals; hence, unless they are aided in making a proper adjustment, their whole social structure will crumble. There will no longer be any meaning to life since all the old goals and ambitions will be gone. Laws may be passed and regu¬ lations may be made to control and guide the Navajo in certain channels, but these will be mere words unless they make sense to the people.

An important phase of the picture is the special problem created by the Navajo’s position on the Great Divide. His home is the watershed of the Colorado River, a fact which places him in the center at an acute crisis in the American conservation problem. There is no ill feeling toward the Navajo on the part of the Federal Government, as the Navajo is prone to think, but the Navajo is the victim of a situation for which no one can be held responsible. The Navajo’s economy is at stake, but his type of econ¬ omy is in conflict with our economy. In the final analysis the Federal Gov¬ ernment is obligated to preserve both the Navajo’s and the white man’s economy, and at the same time save the spirit of the Navajo Indian. If this task is to be accomplished, forces must be brought into action which will assure a program based on well-planned social engineering.

In modern America it is no longer possible for a minority group to retain its old cultural patterns by remaining isolated from the majority group. There is an ever increasing pressure and infiltration of the white man’s social and economic influence. The minority groups are slowly but surely being engulfed by the continual pressure of modern American culture.

Controlling Roof Solar Heat Effects in Buildings

35

CONTROLLING ROOF SOLAR HEAT EFFECTS IN BUILDINGS OF THE SOUTHWEST—SOME OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Wayne E. Long\ W. R. Woolrich^, and K. A. Bacon^

The expression that '^everybody talks about the weather but nobody does anything about it’" is not only trite but no longer true. Man long ago decided that there was little, or nothing, that he could do to control or basically change the whims and caprices of nature, but since the dawn of history man has been doing things to control the effects of weather on his environment. Out of the slow evolution of man’s efforts has come a vast scientific and economic industry called air conditioning. Yes, the engineer and the architect are doing something about the weather.

Although admitting that present day year around control of man’s surroundings is not economically within the reach of the average wage earner, the public has not let the scientist, the physicist, the engineer, nor the architect rest because of such an admission. This fact, combined with certain other economic considerations, seems to have spurred the public into demanding less expensive and more generally adaptable methods of comfort heating and cooling. Within recent months several of our technical publications have given much space to a discussion of solar heating. All such ideas are intriguing and eye-catching; the old appeal of "something for nothing.” So now the harnessing of solar energy is no longer a dream but an accomplished fact. We of the southwestern United States, however, are not so much interested at the present time in the use of solar energy for heating. We are seeking shelter from the heat of the sun.

To better understand this statement let us consider a few pertinent facts relative to solar intensity. The famous Texas climate is primarily re¬ sponsible for the location of such a great number of military air training fields in our state. That our Texas atmosphere is exceptionally clear is at¬ tested to by the location of the McDonald Observatory in the Davis Moun¬ tains where there are approximately 300 clear days and nights each year. Of such climate and weather we are justifiably proud— until we begin seeking to defend against it. The cloudless days and the clear atmosphere of our Texas climate then turn traitor to us and cause us to suffer from the long season of intense solar energy reaching the earth’s surface through the clear atmosphere.

Research investigations have determined that a maximum of about 420 British Thermal Units of radiant solar energy strike each square foot of the earth’s atmosphere each hour. Of this 420 BTU, about 300 reach the earths surface while the remaining 120 are absorbed or otherwise dissipated iDy the water vapor, dust particles, smoke, etc. in the atmosphere. In pass- ing through the atmosphere this radiant energy has practically no effect in raising the ambient temperature. It is a far different story, however, when these energy waves strike the roof of your house. The mass, or opaque rnaterials of construction, of the roof absorbs the radiant energy with, at times, an almost unbelievable increase of temperature. At Austin, Texas the speaker in late September of this year recorded temperatures as high as 168 F under a slate shingle on the north slope of a pitched roof. (Prof.

^Professor, Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas ^Dean of Engineering, The University,. of Texas

^Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas

36

The Texas Journal of Science

Miller of the Mechanical Engineering Department of Purdue University once told me that he had recorded black body temperatures from solar radiation greater than 212° F.) The absorption of solar energy is manifested by an increase of temperature of the roof and is then passed on by conduc¬ tion, convection and radiation to the air and ceiling below. The end effect of this solar radiation on the roof is a high attic air temperature and an uncomfortably hot living space beneath. During the summer of 1946 the speaker made some tests on the roof and attic of a frame type residence at College Station, Texas, and observed air temperature of 130° F in an un¬ ventilated attic.

It is obvious from these few temperature observations that solar energy is a very real factor to be considered in the problem of human comfort, and that this one source of heat alone is worthy of serious consideration by

the architect and the engineer. We have reached the point in our technical

and practical knowledge where we can stop simply talking about the weather and can do something about it.

Now let us consider some of the methods of shielding ourselves from

the effect of solar radiation. The most obvious method is the placing of

some form of insulation between the roof and the occupied space. Either of two types of insulation, reflective or mass, may be used. Reflective in¬ sulation, such as highly polished aluminum foil is usually placed between the roof rafters or joists and serves very effectively in throwing the radiant heat waves back into the roofing material. This method of insulation does not prevent the absorption of radiant energy by the roof, but it forms an effective shield for the ceiling and tends to reduce the temperature of the attic air. Mass insulation, such as rock wool or insulcotton, placed either between the roof rafters or on the ceiling in the attic forms a heat barrier and reduces the rate of heat transfer from the attic to the occupied space, and at the same time reduces winter exfiltration of warm air to the attic. In the use of either of these methods of insulation the attic air in the summer will reach a temperature higher than that of outside air unless the attic is effectively ventilated.

A second and quite popular method of reducing the effect of solar radiation is the use of forced ventilation. In most cases the fan is installed in the attic and is arranged to pull air into the living space and to discharge it through the attic. When this system is used insulation is of little or no use as a barrier to summer heat, but is usually justified on the basis of fuel saving for winter heating. A method of using the attic fan now gaining some popularity, especially in buildings of great mass, such as brick, or stone construction, is that of night operation only of the fan for drawing the cool night air through the building for cooling purposes and then closing the windows and doors during the day. In using forced air circula¬ tion to counteract or reduce the effect of solar radiation it is essential that the attic air, be continuously displaced with outside air during the period of the day when the solar heat is passing through the roof to the attic.

Neither of these methods of solar shielding prevents the absorption of radiant energy by the roof. The application of water to the roof, however, either by ponding or by spray, intercepts solar radiant energy at its point of conversion to heat and thus removes the source of high temperatures before these temperatures are felt in the occupied space.

The protection of flat roofed buildings from high solar heat tempera¬ tures by roof ponding was investigated by Woolrich and Rice in 1946 at the

Controlling Roof Solar Heat Effects in Buildings

37

University of Texas. Differing hypotheses had persisted relative to the virtue of deep versus shallow water ponding in maintaining low roof temperatures in the summer sun. The argument against deep pondage was that the cost of building construction is greatly increased when roof pond depths are increased from two inches to eight or ten inches since the weight of water supported for each 100 square feet of roof increases approximately 500 pounds for each inch of depth of water. These investigations ascertained that on a typical summer day in Central Texas when the official U. S. Weather Bureau reported a dry bulb atmospheric temperature of 100° F the roof carrying two inches of water would rise to 108° F and the roof with six inches of water would reach 103° F. Adjacent unwetted red slate tar-felt roofing went up to 15 8° F. The wet bulb atmosphere temperature on this same day remained closely to 76° F.

The two inch pond of water warmed up much quicker each morning but likewise cooled off much more quickly at night, thus partially offsetting the slight gain of effectiveness of the six-inch pond of water. Summarizing, in this and subsequent tests, it is indicated that there is little justification to invest in a roof construction to support more than one to two inches of pond water. If the roof surface temperature is an important factor in keep¬ ing the rooms beneath cooler, then the shallow pond of water is an effective insulator from solar heat.

An alternate method of the use of water for the interception of solar heat is that of covering the roof with a spray. This system was used in the summer of 1949 by Prof. R. A. Bacon of the University of Texas on a three bed room residence having a pitched roof. In this particular test the roof was kept covered by a spray of water flowing at the rate of about 100 gal¬ lons per hour. The evaporation from the roof was approximately 50 gallons per hour resulting in a run-off, or waste, of about 50 gallons per hour. It should be stated here that this test was only a preliminary run for the purpose of deciding upon the proper design and pattern for more efficient coverage of the roof.

On September 19, 1949, of the above test period the mean roof tem¬ perature between the hours of ten A. M. and four P. M. on the north slope of the wet roof was 117° F. while that of a dry area on the same slope was 132° F, This difference of 15° F. was not reflected to any appreciable degree on the air temperature of the occupied space because of the insulat¬ ing effect of attic air and massive ceiling. The ceiling was composed of one-half inch plaster, four inches of hollow tile and two inches of con¬ crete. The air temperature of the occupied space during this period varied from 82 to 87° F. while the outside air temperature for the same period ranged from 83 to 87.5° F*.

The difference of 15° F. between the wet and the dry roof tempera¬ tures, at first thought does not seem very impressive. However, when it is realized that the evaporation of 50 gallons of water per hour from the roof represents the removal of approximately 415,000 BTU per hour the result takes on a much greater significance. Not all of this heat, of course, finds its way into the occupied space. A great portion of the roof heat is re-radiated to surrounding objects or is given off to the outside air by con¬ vection. Especially is the latter true after sundown when the air tempera¬ ture has dropped several degrees.

May we reemphasize that the Southwestern United States where summer sun is intensive over a long period of’ the year, where the need for space

38

The Texas Journal of Science

heating during the cool months is of short duration, and is inexpensive, the economic interest in solar energy from the personal comfort viewpoint is quite opposite from that in the more northern latitudes. Our principal quest and interest, therefore, is directed to trying to keep our homes cool by shielding ourselves from solar radiation by utilizing both prevailing winds and humidity conditions in ventilation, and by adapting reversed cycle phenomena for room refrigeration rather than for heat pump warming. We should construct our homes with the major objective of designing for room coolness instead of natural warmth.

These and other problems of heat transfer and of structural design are being investigated at Austin, Texas, on six ceramic houses constructed by the Acme Brick Company of Fort Worth, Texas. The Bureau of Engineer¬ ing Research of The University of Texas is conducting a rather extensive research on these residences along the lines of foundation and structural problems and of heat transfer. It is anticipated that this research will require about two years and the data and results of these investigations will be made public as they are collected, and it is hoped that with this data we can proceed more intelligently in "doing something about the weather.”

LITERATURE CITED

Woolrich, W. R., and W. M. Rice — Solar radiation absorption by wetted roots. Heating and

Ventilating 45 (1): 84-87.

ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERNS FOR COMPLEX WAVE FRONTS

A. H, LaGrone

Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory The University of Texas

ABSTRACT

This paper describes the results of antenna response measurements made with a 20-foot parabolic antenna on a 2.5-mile path over Lake Buchanan near Austin, Texas. The measure¬ ments were made to test the angle separation qualities of this antenna for complex wave fronts composed of two wave components under various conditions of relative phase and angular separation. These tests were made in conjunction with other tests conducted by the Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory, the results of which are reported elsewhere (Straiten and LaGrone, 1949).

INTRODUCTION

The Electrical Engineering Research Laboratory of The University of Texas has been conducting a study of the problem of angle-of-arrival of microwave radio signals in the lower troposphere since the fall of 1945. In the course of this study, several methods have been tried (Straiton, Gordon, LaGrone, 1948; LaGrone, Hamlin, Straiton, 1948; Hamlin, Seay, Gordon, 1949) with varying degees of success. One method of attack was that of using the high resolving power of a very large antenna to indicate the angle-of-arrival by pointing for maximum signal. The inaccuracies of this method were generally well known; however, the study did serve to point out the range of errors to be expected for a given antenna and the effect of the variables in a wave front on the indicated angle-of-arrival.

This study was made for a wave front composed of two wave com¬ ponents of known relative magnitude and angular separation in space. The two wave components are referred to as the direct wave and the reflected

* This work was conducted under Office of Naval Research Contract N5ori-136, P. O. 1.

Antenna Response Patterns For Complex Wave Fronts 39

wave. The study is made by obtaining response patterns for several cases under controlled conditions in the field and comparing them with theoretical response patterns obtained by mathematically analyzing assumed wave fronts.

The field-measured data were taken for a wave length of 3.2 centi¬ meters over a 2. 5 -mile path over Lake Buchanan near Austin, Texas. The antenna used was a 20 -foot parabolic antenna with a rectangular face, Figure 1, and is the same antenna used by the Bell Telephone Laboratories in their early microwave angle-of-arrival measurements (Sharpless, 1946).

Figure 1 Receiver Site Showing Bell Laboratories’ 20-Foot Parabolic Antenna

40

The Texas Journal of Science

It is assumed that maxima in the scanning pattern of this antenna occur when the axis of the parabola is pointed in the direction of the incoming wave.

METHOD OF DETERMINING THE SCANNING PATTERN FOR THE ASSUMED

WAVE FRONTS

The method used is that of vector addition. This method consists of summing up the signal strengths at the appropriate phase angles along the face of the antenna for various angles-of-antenna tilt. The resulting signal strength is then plotted against angle-of -antenna tilt to obtain the scanning pattern, Figure 2. The angle of tilt which gives maximum signal is the in¬ dicated angle-of-arrival.

This method necessarily assumes that each portion of the wave front can be regarded as a secondary source or Huygen's source of known electric intensity, phase, and polarization and that the receiving antenna has trans¬ mitting characteristics such that it generates a wave that is uniform in phase and magnitude in the plane of the face. As a receiver, equal signals at any two points along its face produce equal response. This method is described by Friis and Lewis (1947). In general, an antenna with variations in re¬ sponse to equal signals along the face would indicate approximately the same angle-of -arival as a somewhat smaller antenna of the characteristics assumed above.

The antenna itself is assumed to have a rectangular opening, to be vertically mounted, and to have a width so small that horizontal variations in phase and signal strength in the wave front are negligible.

ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERN FOR A SINGLE WAVE

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORIES . THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS . AUSTIN. TEXAS

FIG. 2

Antenna Response Patterns For Complex Wave Fronts

An example of this method can be found in LaGrone, Hamiin and Straiton (op. cif.)

field-measured response patterns

The field-measured response patterns for 'the 20-foot antenna are shown in Figure 3 for ten cases in which the angle between the two wave com¬ ponents was controlled by a predetermined height-above-ground setting of the transmitter. The relative phase was allowed to change as the difference in the path lengths varied with transmitter height. The arrows on each curve indicate the angular separation of the two wave components a-nd the true angle-of-arrival of the components. The arrow to the right marks the angle-of-arrival of the direct w.. ve while the arrow to the left indicates the angle-of -arrival of the reflected wave. The reflection coefficient was approxi¬ mately .94.

A study of these curves shows a response pattern which varies in magnitude and shape as the wave components are brought closer together in space and the relative phase changes. In only one case does the maximum signal indicate the true angle-of-arrival of the direct wave. In six of the ten cases, the presence of the second wave component is not even indicated. The four remaining cases do show two major signals as being received but in no case does the maximum signal indicate the true angle-of-arrival of either wave component.

RECEIVER HEIGHT - 30 FEET DISTANCE - 2.25 MILES TRANSMITTER HEIGHT AS SHOWN

20 -FOOT ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERNS FiG. 3

42

The Texas Journal of Science

THEORETICAL ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERNS FOR A 20-FOOT ANTENNA

The curves in Figure 4 show three theoretical response patterns for a 20-foot antenna when receiving two signals of the same frequency simul¬ taneously which are separated in space by a fixed angle. The angle of sepa¬ ration is indicated by the location of the arrows. The signals were assumed to be of the same magnitude. In this study only the relative phase of the two signals was varied. The relative phase is indicated on each curve.

It is immediately apparent that each of these curves resemble a curve in Figure 3. It is also apparent that in no case does maximum signal indicate the true angle-of -arrival of either wave component. The effect of relative phase is then obvious since that was the only variable.

The curves in Figure 5 represent a more detailed study of an assumed wave front composed of tv/o wave components with a 20-foot antenna. The angle- of -arrival of the direct wave is shown by the a arrow and that of the reflected wave by the ^ arrow. Their angular separation in space is the angle between a and /S. The relative time phase of the two components is indicated on each curve. The reflection coefficient was assumed to be 0.6.

A study of these curves shows how both the angular separation in space and the relative time phase of the two signals affect the antenna re¬ sponse pattern. The scale is too small to show the magnitude of the error in the angle-of -arrival of the direct wave as determined by maximum signal in all but a few cases; however, most of the cases do show an appreciable error.

Other studies, not within the scope of this paper, would show that the

THEORETICAL ANTENNA RESPONSE PATTERN FOR 20-F00T ANTENNA

FIG. 4

Antenna Response Patterns For Complex Wave Fronts 43

relative magnitude of the signal components as well as the addition of other components affects the antenna response pattern to a comparable degree.

SUMMARY

The pointing for maximum signal method of determining the angle-of- arrival of the direct wave appears to be unsatisfactory when the wave front is composed of more than one wave component and they are separated in space by an angle less than that of the basic antenna pattern.

Any factor affecting the relative phase or the angular separation in space of the two wave components would have a direct bearing on the antenna-response pattern and on the angle-of -arrival of the maximum signal.

LITERATURE CITED

Fr,iis, H. T. and W. D. Lewis — 1947^ — Radar antennas. Bell System Techn. Jour. 26 (2) ; 219. Hamlin, E. W., Seay, P. A. and W. E. Gordon — 1949 — New solution to the problem of verti¬ cal angle-of -arrival of radio waves. Jour. Appl. Phys. 20 (3)

LaGrone, A. H., Hamliri, E. W. and A. W. Straiton— 1948 — The indicated angle-of-arrival by phase front analysis. Electrical Eng. Res. Lab. Univ. Tex., Rept. No. 12.

Sharpless, W. N. — 1946 — Measurement of the angle-of-arrival of micro-waves. Proc. Inst. Radio Eng. 34: 837-845.

Straiton, A. W., Gordon, W. E. and A, H. LaGrone— -1948 — A method of determining the angle-of-arrival. Jour. Appl. Phys. 19 (6) : 524-533.

Straiton, A. W. and A. H, LaGrone — 1949 — Microwave angle separation on a two and one- half mile overwater path. Electrical Eng. Res. Lab., Univ. Tex. Rept. No. 30.

1 w G i 1 rrrt i if	.... ......
TIME	VV TIME	TIME
/ \ PHASE A	f\ PHASE	^ ^ PHASE ■
	i:	X.

84048' IE 16 84048 12 16 8404 8 12 16 84048 12 16 84048 12 16

ANTENNA TILT ANGLE - O- I UNIT= 0.083 DEGREES

ANTENNA RESPONSE FOR PHASE FRONT COMPOSED OF TWO PLANE WAVES

FIG. 5

44

The Texas Journal of Science

A BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE GULF OF MEXICO Richard A. Geyer

Humble Oil and Refining Company Houston L Texas

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Reference

Numbers

OCEANOGRAPHY

Historical _ _ _ 1 - 6

General _ 7 - 12

Theoretical _ 13 - 19

Temperature Characteristics _ 20 - 30

Salinity Characteristics _ 3 1 - 32

Tidal and Current Characteristics _ 33 - 45

Other Physical Characteristics _ . - - - 46 - 50

MARINE BIOLOGY

Historical _ _ _ 5 1

General and Theoretical _ 52 - 73

Statistical _ 74 - 82

Regional Ecological Surveys and Population Studies Fish and Shrimp

General _ 8 3 - 111

Louisiana _ 112 - 11/

Texas _ 118-124

Mexico _ 125-126

Oysters

General _ 127 - 128

Alabama _ 129 - 133

Mississippi _ 134

Louisiana _ 13 5 - 143

Texas _ : _ 144 - 160

Mexico _ 161 - 162

GEOLOGY

Historical and General _ _ 163 - 182

Theoretical and Structural _ _ 183 - UO

Sedimentology and Paleontology _ _ 191 - 213

Economic Geology

Petroleum Exploration _ 214-223

Shore Line Preservation _ _ _ _ 224 - 228

Changes in Characteristics of Mississippi Delta

Historical and General _ 229 - 244

Mud Lump Phenomena _ 245 - 25 5

Geologic Age _ 2 56

Geologic Origin _ 2 57

Miscellaneous _ 258 - 26 5

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

45

TABLE OF CONTENTS— continued

Reference

Numbers

GEOPHYSICS

Historical and General _ _ 266 - 269

Seismic _ 270 - 272

Gravity _ _ 273 - 28 1

Magnetic _ 282

METEOROLOGY

Historical _ ^ _ 283 - 289

General _ , _ 290 - 301

Effects of Wind Hurricanes

Theoretical _ 302 - 3 1 1

Regional

General _ 312 - 3 36

Alabama _ 3 37

Florida _ 33 8 - 3 39

Louisiana _ 340 - 344

Texas _ 345 - 348

Northers, Moonsoonal Effects, Etc. _ _ _ 349 - 3 59

Effects of Temperature _ 360 - 371

Effects of Rainfall _ 372 - 3 80

Charts _ 1 - 24

APPENDIX A

Mortality Caused by Changes in the Physical

Environment of the Organism _ - _ 1 - 17

Mortality Caused by Rapid Changes in Organic

Environment _ _ 18 - 63

Discussion of the Paleontological Aspects of

Mass Mortality _ _ _ 64 - 80

APPENDIX E

Additions to Mass Mortality and Gulf of Mexico Annotated Bibliographies

INTRODUCTION

This bibliography was compiled in order to list and to some extent evaluate the available information in the literature dealing with the oceanography, marine biology, geology, geophysics, and meterology of the Gulf of Mexico. It could serve as basic reference material for planning marine biologic and oceanographic studies that might be conducted to gain more information about the marine population, productivity, and oceanographic normals of this area, and about those factors influencing

46

The Texas Journal of Science

any fluctuations in these quantities. It also demonstrates the meagre amount of information published about this area and indicates the great need for further scientific studies. The emphasis in the marine biological references is placed on the ecological phase of this subject rather than on the taxo¬ nomic aspects.

It is evident from the number and nature of the references found in this bibliography that the literature on the Gulf of Mexico is not compar¬ able with that existing for any similar area of 500,000 square miles. For example, Bencker (ref. 2) lists 133 expeditions to the Arctic and only one to the Gulf of Mexico during the period from 1800 to 1930. Relatively few references are available that can be used directly in the investigation of marine population and productivity studies and the determination of oceanographic normals for this area. It is therefore necessary that further surveys of this type be conducted in order to supply the necessary informa¬ tion. However, these problems have received some attention from time to time as far back as 188 5. Stearns (ref. 10 5) proposed a fishery survey be conducted on an annual basis in the Gulf of Mexico citing the increasing scarcity of fish and the necessity of fishermen traveling increasing distances for profitable fishing. His proposed list of monthly expenses is interesting and reflects the prevailing costs at that time. For example, the maintenance of a 60-ton schooner to be used for this survey was quoted as $75.00 per month, provisions at $150.00 and salaries of a mate and cook $50.00 and $40.00 respectively. More recently, 1926, Contrevas (ref. 3) outlined a proposed international oceanographic expedition in Latin American waters. In addition, a fisheries’ program for the Texas coast was outlined in 1943 by Gunter (ref. 120) and his publication '^Studies of Marine Fishes of Texas” in 1945 (ref. 121) represents a very detailed study of this subject.

MARINE BIOLOGY

It is also evident from some of the references that the problem of fluctu¬ ations in the productivity of the Gulf of Mexico with special reference to edible fish and Crustacea has long existed in this area. For example, as far back as 1883 Stearns (ref. 103) noted a marked decrease for the five pre¬ vious years and proposed investigations to determine the cause. Higgens and Lord in 1927 (ref. 95) comment on the fact that "The idea that it will not be long before the fish supply of Texas and the Atlantic Coast states will be exhausted is fast gaining recognition. The recent scarcity of certain species in the Texas markets emphasized this possibility.” Gunter (ref. 116) in 193 8 describes in some detail the seasonal variations and abundance of certain estuarian and marine fishes in Louisiana in which annual re-current seasonal peaks of abundance and migration were shown for many species. Sellars (ref. 101) in 1885 offers another example of marked fluctuation in the abundance of fish during this time. Wood (ref. Ill) in 1883 in a dis¬ cussion of the fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico believes that the fishing banks of the Gulf if properly marked and exploited would compare favorably with those of Newfoundland.

A substantial number of references will also be found dealing with natural occurring phenomena responsible for the mortality of fish in this area. The mass mortality of fish and other marine life from these causes is of such importance and interest that this subject is treated in more detail in the appendix of this bibliography. The references listed there are not confined exclusively to the Gulf of Mexico area but include recorded in-

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

47

stances of this phenomenon from all parts of the world. In addition, numer¬ ous references to the paleontological implications and the possible relation¬ ship of the problem of the origin of oil are also included. One of the earliest accounts of fish mortality caused by excessive cold is reported by Bartlett (ref. 286) in 18 56 in a book on "Exploration in Texas.” The relationship between fish mortality and periods of excessive cold is also described in references by Storey (ref. 106), Willcox (ref. 110), Miller (ref. 99), Finch (ref. 86), Galloway (ref. 87), Gunter (refs. 91 and 92) and many others. Other factors responsible for mortality such as marked changes in salinity can be found in references by Collier and Parker (refs. 31 and 32). Addi¬ tional data on salinity are available in references by Dietrich (ref. 10) and Parr (ref. 12).

Statistical information on the production of fish in the Gulf of Mexico is available in references of the type listed under Anderson and Powers (refs. 74 through 78) and extend back at least as far as 1893 in reference 79 by Collins and Smith. In addition, some data are also available for 1887 in reference 82 of Stearns and Jordan,

A general review of the Texas oyster industry as it existed more than 50 years ago can be found in reference 80 by Kibbe in 1898. Numerous references to ecological factors involved in oyster culture in the coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico for a period of approximately 50 years are also avail¬ able. For example, Moore (ref. 141) in 1899 describes the oyster beds of Louisiana and mentions the various predators and their effert on the oysters from statements made by the oystermen. Other early references include one by Moore (ref. 156) in 1907 on a hydrographic and biologic survey of the oyster bottoms in Matagorda Bay, Texas, and a report by Rathburn (ref- 159) in 1895 in which factors involved in oyster mortality in the Galveston Bay, Texas, area are discussed.

METEOROLOGY

The meteorologic references can be used as source material for a number of analytical studies in the Gulf of Mexico area. Some articles which sum¬ marize the occurrence of hurricanes, thunderstorms, and so forth, are found in references 284 and 28 5 respectively. In addition, Frankenfield (ref. 287) in 1917 reviews the storms in Galveston from 1875 to 1915 and Frazier (ref. 28 8) in 1921 describes some of the major storms in this area and their attendant changes in shore line as far back as 1527.

The occurrence of northers has been described in the literature as early as 18 56 by Bache (ref. 349) and Forshey (ref. 352) in 1857. An interesting account of early Texas coast storms is found in an article by Stewart (ref- 359) in 1919. Discussions of Texas monsoons and land and sea breezes are also included, as for example, in articles by Harrington (ref. 354) in 1895 and Heckathorn (ref. 355) in 1919.

GEOLOGY

The geological references for this area are of particular interest from the standpoint of demonstrating the changes in shore line occurring during the recorded past. These accounts are found, for example, in articles by the Beach Erosion Board such as reference 226 in 1937 on major changes in Grand Isle, by Bache (ref. 229) in 1851 and reference 230 in 1859, and many others.

A number of interesting references of the occurrence of oil seeps in

48

The Texas Journal of Science

the Gulf of Mexico are also presented in the section on economic geology. These include references by Harris (ref. 216) in 1910, Hayes and Kennedy (ref. 218) 1903, Phillips (ref. 220) 1900, and Turner (ref. 222) 1903. Reference 223 by the U. S. Hydrographic Office includes maps showing oil slicks in the Gulf of Mexico for the years 1900, 1905 and 1906. Haseman (ref. 217) in 1921 in an article on the "Humic Acid Origin of Asphalt” discusses the presence and origin of other bituminous solid and semi-solid substances along the coast of Florida and Georgia where the water from fresh water swamps flows into the salt water of the Gulf of Mexico. Very early references on the geology of lower coastal Louisiana describing many of the present productive domes can be found as early as 1869 by Hilgard (ref. 219), as well as very recent references dealing with the oil possibilities of the Gulf Coast continental shelf in terms of geological factors by Carsey (ref. 214) in 1948 and Critz (ref. 215) in 1947.

SEDIMENTOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

A number of interesting references on the sedimentology and paleon¬ tology of this area are also available including a description of foraminifera cores from the continental slope by Phleger (ref. 202) in 1939 and Trask, Phleger and Stetson (ref. 207) in 1947. Recent changes in sedimentation in the Gulf of Mexico are discussed in the latter reference based on the latest expedition in 1946 by the research vessel "Atlantis” of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Earlier important references on sedimentology especially with respect to the Mississippi Delta area include those of Trow¬ bridge (refs. 208 through 210) in 1923, 1927 and 1930, Bullard (ref. 192) 1942, and Russell (refs. 204 and 205) 1937 and 1939. Some of the earlier references in sedimentology are those by Riddle (ref. 203) 1846 and Turner (ref. 211) 1903, A detailed analysis of the sediments of Barataria Bay ap¬ pears in an article by Krumbein and Aberdeen (ref. 197) 1937.

A number of interesting theoretical and structural geologic references are found including those by Price (ref. 186) 1933 on the roll of diastroph- ism in the topography of the Corpus Christi area of southern Texas, and reference 188 by the same author in 1947 discussing the equilibrium of form and forces in tidal basins of the coast of Texas and Louisiana. In addi¬ tion, this author in conjunction with Gunter (ref. 187) 1942 discusses cer¬ tain recent geologic and biologic changes in South Texas including their probable causes. Two important references of special interest to paleontolo¬ gists are those of Maury (refs. 198 and 199) appearing in 1920 and 1922 consisting of extensive annotated bibliographies of recent mollusks of the Gulf of Mexico and Pleistocene and Pliocene species from the Gulf states. These references include littoral species from Tampa to Corpus Christi as veil as recent deep water species dredged by the "Blake” in the Gulf of Mexico.

CHARTS

A number of references are listed in the Appendix dealing with both navigational aids and early charts some of which are primarily of historical interest for this area. The best source of recent charts of various types and other navigational aids for the Gulf of Mexico are found in references 16 through 20 and include publications by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Hydrographic Office of the U. S. Navy.

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

49

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The major portion of this bibliography was obtained from the refer¬ ence and library facilities made available by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and its repository^ the Library of the Marine Biologic Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Other cooperating libraries which were visited during the course of the preparation of this bibliography include the Ameri¬ can Geographical Society, and the reference division of the New York Public Library in New York, the Libraries of the U. S. Geological Survey, the Hydrographic Office of the U. S. Navy, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Library of Congress in Washington. In addition, an appreciable number of references were called to my attention by Mr. T. S. Austin of the Oceanographic Division of the Hydrographic Office, Mr. Jack Baugh¬ man, Chief Marine Biologist of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commis¬ sion, and Dr. Gordon Gunter, Acting Director of the Institute of Marine Science.

The writer wishes to express his appreciation to the Humble Oil & Refining Company for permission to publish this annotated bibliography.

OCEANOGRAPHY

HISTORICAL

1. BACHE, A. D. (1^59)— Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey,

32nd Congress, 2nd Session, House Document 64

(Progress report on triangulation along Gulf coast with notes on

changes in the passes)

2, BENCKER, H. (1930)— bathymetric soundings of the oceans (with

chronological list of oceanic expeditions from 1800-1930), Hydro.

50

The Texas Journal of Science

Rev. (The number of expeditions to each of the major regions of the world is as follows: Arctic 13 3, Antarctic 36, Indian 10, around the world 1 5 , Gulf of Mexico 1 )

3. CONTRERAS, FRANCISCO (1926) — Provecto para una Exploracion oceano-

graphica Internacional Lationamericana (Proposed International Latin American oceanographic expedition), Mem. de la Soc. Cient. "Antonio Alzate,” Tomo 45, Num. 1-6, pp, 165-187

(Outlines proposed ocean expedition, its objectives, type of personnel and equipment, and lists some of the earlier expenditions)

4. KOHL, j. G. ( 1863 ) — Aelteste Geschichte der Entdeckung und Erfor-

schting des Golfs von Mexico und der ihn umgebenden Kuesten durch die Spanier von 1492-1 543 (The oldest history of the discovery and exploration of the Gulf of Mexico and contiguous areas by the Spaniards from 1492 through 1543), Zeits. fuer allge. Erdkunde N. F., Bd XV, pp. 1-40, 169-194 (This series forerunner of Zeit. der Gesell fuer Erdk.)

5. NELSON, FRED J. (1942) — The good Gulf, U. S. Naval Institute Pro¬

ceedings 68, May, pp. 622-630

6. SHELBY, CHARMION c. (Editor) (193 8) — Grenier’s Journal of his voyage

to Vera Cruz 1745, Louisiana Hist. Soc. Quart. 21, No. 3, pp. 631-655

GENERAL

7. AGASSIZ, ALEX. ( 1888) — Three cruises of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic

Survey steamer ^^Blake” in the Gulf of Mexico, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the Atlantic Coast of the United States from 1877 to 1880, Bull, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College in Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A., vol. 14, 15

8. AGASSIZ, LOUIS ( 1888)- — Tiventy-three cruises of the Blake,” Gulf of

Mexico, Houghton Mifflin Co., 2 vol.

9. DIETRICH, GUENTER (1936) — Das ^^ozeanische Nivellement” und seine

Anwendung auf die Golfkueste und die atlantische Kueste der Verein- igten Staater von Amerika ("Sea level” and its application to the Gulf coast and the Atlantic coast of the United States of America), Zeitschr. f. Geophysik, Jahrg. 12, Heft 7/8, p. 287-298

10. - - (1939) — -Das Amerikanische Mittelmeer (The Gulf

of Mexico), Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde zu Berlin, Zeitschr., pp. 108-130, photo, pp. 115, 120, 121, 127

(Summary and evaluation of much of the available information in addition to the introduction of some new material on physical oceanography)

11. FORSHEY, c. G. (1878) — -The physics of the Gulf of Mexico and its

chief affluent the Mississippi River, Salem, 42 pp.

12. PARR, A. E. ( 193 5 ) — -Report on hydrographic observations in the Gulf

of Mexico and the adjacent straits made during the Yale Oceano¬ graphic Expedition on the '^Mabel Taylor” in 1932, Bull. Bingham Ocean. Collect, vol. V Art 1, pp. 1-93, Sept.

THEORETICAL

13. DIETRICH, GUNTER (1937) — Frageii der Grossformen und der Herkunft

des Tiefenwassers im amerikanischen Mittelmeer (Questions as to the

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

51

major features and origin of the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico) , Ann. d. hydrogr. 65, pp. 345-347

14. . — .. — - — =- (1937)-— 1. Die Lage der Meeresoberflaeche im

Druckfeld von Ozean und Atmos pbaere, mit besonderer Berneck- sichtigung des westlichen Nordatlantischen Ozeans und des Golfes von Mexiko (The position of the ocean surface relative to the oceanic and atmospheric pressures with respect to the western north Atlantic ocean and the Gulf of Mexico), II. Ueber Btiuegung und Herkunft des Golf stromw assets (On the movement and origin of the Gulf stream), Berlin Univ., Institut f. Meereskunde, Veroeff., N.F., A. Geogr.-naturwiss. Reihe, Heft 33, pp 1-51, 52-91

15. HERSEY, j. B. AND MOORE, H. B. {194S ) —Progtess report on scattering

layer observations in the Atlantic, Trans. Amer. Geoph. Union 29, pp 341-354

(Also includes data from Gulf of Mexico. Describes the detection on echo-sounding records of denser media between the surface and the ocean bottom, and discusses possible origin)

16. LiNDENKOHL, A. (1^96) Spczifisches Geivicht des Oberflaechenwassers

im Golf von Mexico und im Golfstrom (Specific gravity of the sur¬ face waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf stream), Petermanns Mitt. vol. 42,' pi. 3 at end

(Compiled from expeditions of ''Blake,” "Albatross” and "Palinurus”)

17. PARR, A. E. {19} 5 ) —Hydrographic relations between the so-called Gulf

stream and the Gulf of Mexico, Trans. Amer. Geoph. Union, 16th Ann. Meeting, April, Pt. I, pp. 246-2 50

18. STOCKS, THEODOR AND wuEST, G. ( 193 5) — Die Ticfenvethaeltnisse des

Offenen Atlantischen Ozeans (The depth characteristics of the open Atlantic ocean), Deutsche Atlantischen Exped. "Meteor,” 1925-1927, Wiss. Erg., Bd. 3, Teil 1, 1. Lief., 31 pp

19. STOCKS, THEODOR {19 } S) —Motphologie des Atlantischen Ozeans.

Statistik der Tiefenstufen des Atlantischen Ozeans (The morphology of the Atlantic Ocean. Statistics of the submarine topography of the Atlantic Ocean), Deutsche Atlantische Exped., "Meteor,” 1925-27, Wiss. Erg., Bd. 3, 1. Teil, 2. Lief., pp 3 5-151

TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS

20. CHURCH, p. E. (1936)- — Surface temperatures of the Gulf Stream and

the waters on its margin. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., vol. 17, no. 12,

pp 350-351

21. HiRSCH, A. A. (1939) — -Mississippi River water temperature at New

Orleans, Monthly Weather Review 67, p. 415

(The 68-year average monthly air temperature and the 24-year monthly average water temperature, 1915-1938, is plotted. Maximum difference between air and water temperatures slightly more than 10 F. It occurs at the time of minimum river temperature in mid February. In the summer the largest difference in other direction is 2.5 F)

22. LINDENKOHL, A. {1S96) —Residtate der Temperatur tind Dichtigkeits-

beobachtungen in den Gewaessern des Gtdfstroms und des Golf von Mexico durch das Btireau des USCGS (Results of the temperature and density observations of the waters of the Gulf Stream and the

52

The Texas Journal of Science

Gulf of Mexico made by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey), Petermanns Geogr. MitteiL, Heft 2, pp 2 5-29, Map

23. - - (1896) — Temperaturer im Golf von Mexico und

im Golfstrom in der Tiefe von 460 metern (Temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico and in the Gulf Stream at a depth of 460 meters), Peter¬ manns MitteiL, voL 42, 3 pi. at end (Compiled from work of Sigsbee et al)

24, SLOCUM, G. ( 193 5)" — Sea surface temperature summary for the east-

central Gulf of Mexico, 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 63, p. 71 (Gives mean temperature to 0.1 degree by months)

2 5. - - - 1935) — Sea surface temperature summary for the

northwest Gidf of Mexico' 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 63, pp 147-148

(Gives mean temperature to 0.1 degree by months)

26. - - - (193 5)— Sea surface temperature summary for the

north-central Gulf of Mexico, 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 63, p. 174

(Gives mean temperature to 0,1 degree by months. 77.8 F mean)

27. - — - — (193 5)“Sc^ surface temperature summary for the

sotit lowest Gulf of Mexico, 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 63, p. 204

(Gives mean temperatture to 0.1 degree by months. 78.5 mean)

28. - - — (1936) — Sea surface temperature summary for the

southwestern portion of Florida straits, 1912-33, Monthly Weather Review 64, p. 310

29. - - — (1934) — Regression equations analyzing the imme¬

diate antecedents of temperature anomalies in straits of Florida surface water. Monthly Weather Review 62, pp 11-34, 411-415

30. TANNEHiLL, I. R. (1923) — Influence of the Gtilf water surface tem¬

peratures on Texas weather. Monthly Weather Review 51, pp 345-347

SALINITY CHARACTERISTICS

31. COLLIER, A. w. (1938) — Salinity as an ecological factor in Texas bays,

Proc, Texas Acad, Sci. 31, p. 14

32. PARKER, w. E. (1934) — Variation in salinity, coasts of Louisiana and

Texas, USC and GS Field Eng. Bulk, June, no, 7, p. 57

TIDAL AND CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

33. ANONYMOUS (1930) — Harmonic constants, Int. Hydro. Bureau Spec.

Pub. No. 26 (Lists harmonic constants used in tidal computations for 12 ports in the Gulf of Mexico area)

34. CLINE, I. M. (1920) — Relation of changes in storm tides on the coast of

the Gulf of Mexico to the center of and movement of hurricanes. Monthly Weather Review 48, pp 127-146

(Hurricanes are in all instances preceded by storm tides. The water commences rising on the coast in front of the cyclonic area one to two days before storm is experienced. Changes in the position of the rise of the storm tide indicates changes in the course of the storm)

3 5. GRACE, s. F. (1932) — The principal diurnal constituent of tidal motion

in the Gulf of Mexico, Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. Geophys. suppl. 3, pp 70-83, 7 figs.

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

53

36. — — ■ (1933) — The principal semi-diurnal constituent of

tidal motion in the Gulf of Mexico, Mon. Not. Roy. Astr. Soc. Geophys. suppl. 3, pp 156-162

37. HAUPT, E. M. ET AL (lH98)—Discussion on Paper 875 (Origin of the

Gulf Stream and circulation of waters in the Gulf of Mexico with special reference to jetty construction by N. B. Sweitzer, Jr.), Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. 40, pp 90-112 (Also discusses origin of currents in the Gulf of Mexico)

38. MARMER, H. D. (1926)- — The tides at the entrances to the Panama

Canal, Geogr. Rev. 16, pp 502-503

39. - — - - - - (1933) — -Mean Gulf level and Gulf level at Biloxi,

U. S. Board Surveys and Maps, Regular Public Meeting, February 14, pp 3-5

40. - — - - - (1942)— -The tide at Pensacola, U. S. Naval Insti¬

tute Proc. 68, no. 10, October, pp 142-1431

41. - - - - — - - (1927) — Tidal datum planes, USCGS Sp. Pub. No.

13 5, 142 pp (Data for some of Gulf ports on page 60)

42. PETERS, H. {\92})—Theorie der eintaegigen Gezeiten im sued chinesi-

schen Meere und im Golf von Mexico (Theory of the daily tides in the South China Seas and the Gulf of Mexico), Ann. d. Hydro. 51,

pp 1-8

43. PROUDMAN, j. (1929) — Bibliography on tides 1910-27, Inst. Geodetic

and Geophysical Union, Oceanography Section, Bull. No. 12, 27 pp.

44. RAPPLEYE, H. s. (1932) — The 1929 adjustment of the level net. The

Military Engineer, vol. 24, no. 3 8

(Some tidal data for a number of ports along the Gulf of Mexico)

45. SWEITZER, N. B., JR. (1889) — Origin of the Gulf Stream and circula¬

tion of waters in the Gulf of Mexico, with special reference to the effect of jetty construction, Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. 40, pp 86-98

OTHER PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

46. Annual Report of Activities Related to Oyster Problems (1944-45)

First Bienn. Rept. Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries.

(Discusses the soluble phosphorus content in the Gulf of Mexico varying in the Louisiana area in general from 2 to 8 milligrams per cubic meter, although values of 16 milligrams per cubic meter are obtained near Southwest Pass and Pass-a-Loutre. These values are similar to those obtained by G. Riley in his paper, "The significance of the Mississippi River drainage for biological conditions in the northern Gulf of Mexico,” Jour. Mar. Res. 1, pp 60-73, 1938)

47. CLARKE, G. L. {193 8) -—Light penetration in the Gulf of Mexico, vol. 1,

no. 2, Jour. Mar. Res., April 9, pp 8 5-94

48. LLOYD, s. J. (1915) — Radium content of water front the Gulf of

Mexico, Monthly Weather Review 46, p. 342 (Reprint from Sci. Abs. Ser. A, p. 863, July 26)

49. RILEY, G. (1937) — The significance of the Mississippi River drainage

for biological conditions in the northern Gulf of Mexico, Tour. Mar. Res. I, pp 60-74

(Includes data on phosphate content and other nutrients for this area)

54

The Texas Journal of Science

50. WELLS, R. c. (1919) — New determinations of carbon dioxide in water of the Gulf of Mexico, USGS Prof. Paper No. 120a, 16 pp

MARINE BIOLOGY HISTORICAL

\j 5;i. BARTLETT, j. R. (18 56)^ — Personal narrative of exploration and inci¬ dents in Texas, etc., Appleton, N. Y., 624 pp

(One of the earliest accounts of fish mortality in this area caused By excessive cold)

GENERAL AND THEORETICAL

52. ANONYMOUS (1934) — Legislative Investigating Committee on salt

water fisheries and marine taxation, Report, Supplement to the Jour, of the House of Representatives of the 44th Legislature of the state of Texas, Austin, pp. 1-13 3

(Also includes discussion of scientific and technical aspects including need for additional passes to the Gulf of Mexico)

53. - - (1930) — Louisiana man perfects new system of

trawling for shrimp along coast, Fish and Oysters Reporter XII, no. 5, pp 14-15, Tampa, Florida

(New gear provides protection for undersized shrimp by permitting them to escape automatically from the trawling net)

54. CARLSON, Y. A. {19 OS) -—Brilliant Gulf waters. Monthly Weather Re¬

view, 36, pp 371-372

(Note by a mariner of the presence of colored water caused by certain phytoplankton)

5 5. CARY, L. R. AND SPAULDING, M. H, (1909)- — Further contributions to the marine fauna of the Louisiana coast, Gulf Biologic Station, Louisi¬ ana, 21 pp

56. COLLINS, j. w. (1887) — Report on the discovery and investigation of

fishing grotmds made by the Pish Commission steamer Albatross” during a cruise along the Atlantic Coast and in the Gulf of Mexico, with notes on the Gulf fisheries, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fisheries 188 5, pp 217-311

(Discussion confined primarily to area off western Florida and Key West)

57. GALTSOFF, p. s. {19^1)— Oyster industry and problems of management

of public oyster reefs in Texas, (Texas) Game, Fish and Oyster Com¬ mission, Coastal Division, Corpus Christi, (April 10, mimeographed report) , 6 pp

5 8. GUNTER, G. ( 193 8) — Notes on invasion of fresh water by fishes of the Gulf of Mexico, with special reference to the Mississippi- Atchafalaya River systems, Copeia, II, New York, pp 69-71 (Records of migrations of CARCHARINUS, PLATYDON DASY- ATIS, SABINA, TRINECTES, MACULATUS, and MUGIL CEPH- ALUS from the sea to inland water, and DOROSOMA CEPIDIAN- UM from brackish to fresh water)

- (1941) — A plague of toads, Copeia, p. 266

- (1943) — Texas marine resources in war, Texas Fish

and Game 1, pp 4-17

59.

60.

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

55

61. HACHEY, H. B. (1934) — The weatherman and coastal fisheries, Trans.

Amer. Fish Soc. 64, pp 382-389

(The interrelations between meteorology, oceanography and economic aspects of fisheries are discussed to indicate the probable importance of marine meteorology and hydrography to the forecasting of the nature of the fisheries in a given area)

62. PENFOUND, w. T. AND HATHAWAY, E. s. (193 8) — Tlant communttks

in the marshlands of southeastern Louisiana, Ecol. Mon. 81, pp 1-56

63. PERRIER, REMY ( 1 92 1 ) —-Co#r5 Element ah c de Zoologie (Elementary

Course in Zoology) , Maison et Cie, Paris

(Marine zoological study of the "Nuestra costa des Gulf os” especially near "Campeche Sonda”)

64. PHILLIPS, B. Notes on a trip in the Gulf of Mexico. Bull. U. S.

Fish. IV, p. 144

(Random remarks on the presence of a number of types of marine life)

6 5 , PIERCE, H. D. (18 83) — An opinion of the cause of mortality of fishes in the Gulf of Mexico, Bull. U. S. Comm. F'ish and Fisheries 3, p. 332

66. REED, c. T. (1941) — Marine life in Texas waters, Tex. Acad. Sci.,

Anson Jones Press, 88 pp

67. RILEY, G. A. {\9J>7)—The significance of the Mississippi River drainage

for biological conditions in the northern Gulf of Mexico, Jour. Marine Res. I, no. 1, pp 60-74

(Discusses data on phosphate content and other nutrients in these waters)

68. STOREY, M. H. {1919) —Contribution toward a revision of the OPHI-

CHTHYDID eels. The genera CALLECHELYS, and BASCAICHYS, with descriptions of new species and notes on MY RIGHT HYS. Stanford Ichthyol. Bull. I, no. 3, pp 61-84

(Table and key to genera. Description of 21 species of which C. BERRY AE from the Gulf of Mexico is new)

69. TAUNER, L. j. (1887) — Report on the work of the U. S. Fish. Com¬

mission steamer ^^Albatross^^ for year ending December 31, 1885, Rept. of U. S. Comm. Fish. 188 5, 89 pp. Also as Document 118 (Also mentions taking a number of torpedoes aboard to experiment on the effect explosion would have on fish. Record of dredging areas on pages 64-71 and hydrographic records, temperatures, bottom conditions, etc., on pages 72-8 5)

70. THEEL, HjALMAR (1886) — Report of the Holothurioidea, Bull, of the

Museum of Comparative Zoology, vol. 13

(Based in part on data obtained from the Gulf of Mexico)

71. TOMPKINS, w. F. (1938) — The effect on Lake Fontchartrain of opera¬

tions of Bonnet Carre Spillway during the Mississippi River flood of 1937, Shore and Beach 6, pp 3-4

72. vioscA, p. JR. (1927) — Flood control in the Mississippi valley in its re¬

lation to Louisiana fisheries, Trans. Amer, Fish Soc., 57, pp 29-64 (Effects of flood waters on oysters and muskrats also mentioned)

73. — — - — — - — - {1928)— Louisiana wet land and the value of their

wildlife and fishery resources. Ecology 9, pp 216-230

STATISTICAL

74. ANDERSON, A. w, AND POWERS, E. A. (1939)- — Fishery statistics of the

56

The Texas Journal of Science

United States, Statistical Digest 1, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 144-157

75. — - - - (1940) — Fishery statistics of the United States,

Statistical Digest 4, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 147-160

76. — - - — (1941) — Fishery statistics of the United States,

Statistical Digest 7, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 101-108

77. - — — (1942) — Fishery statistics of the United States,

Statistical Digest 11, Dept. Int. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 139-144

78. — - - — - — (1947) — Fishery statistics of the United States

for 1943, Statistical Digest 14, U. S. Dept. Int. Fish and Wildlife Service, Gulf of Mexico review, pp 136-138

79. COLLINS, j. w. AND SMITH, H. M. (1893)~A statistical report on the

fisheries of the Gulf states. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish, 1889, XI, pp 91-184, also as Document 206

(Discusses various phases, activities and potentialities of fishing in¬ dustry in this area and lists four pages of species present. Also pre¬ sents commercial catch for 1889-90 by states and counties bordering the Gulf of Mexico)

80. KiBBE, j. p. (1898) — Oysters and oyster culture in Texas, Bull. U. S.

Fish Comm. XVII, pp 313-314 (General review of Texas oyster industry)

81. SMITH, H. w. (1893) — Investigation of the fisheries of the Gulf states.

Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1889-91, pp 179-180 (A statistical report)

82. STEARNS, s. AND JORDAN, D. s. Fisheries of the Gtilf of Mex¬

ico, from the fisheries and fishery industry of the United States, Sect. II, pt. XV, pp 533-587

REGIONAL ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS AND POPULATION STUDIES

FISH AND SHRIMP GENERAL

83. BAUGHMAN, J. L. (1941) — Notes on the sailfish ISTIOPHORUS

AMERICANUS (Lacepede) in the western Gulf of Mexico, Copeia, vol. 1, pp 33-37, New York

(The distribution of this fish coincides approximately with the line of coral reefs. Season of occurrence, abundance, distribution, food, spawn and natural enemies also discussed.)

84. BURKENROAD, M. D. (1939) — Further observations on PENAEIDAE of

the northern Gulf of Mexico, Bull. Bingham Ocean. Inst. VI, no. 6,

pp 1-62

(Relative abundance and bathymetric distribution of this organism based on 3 5 trawl hauls on the continental shelf in the neighbor¬ hood of the Mississippi River. Discussion of geographical distribution and environmental factors also included.)

85. - - — (1934)— The PENAEIDEA of Louisiana, Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. LX VIII, no. 2

86. FINCH, R. H. (1917) — Fish killed by the cold wave of February 2-4,

1917, in Florida, Monthly Weather Review 45, pp 171-172

87. GALLOWAY, J. c. (1941) — Lethal effect of the cold winter of 1939-40

on marine fishes at Key West, Florida, Copeia 2, pp 118-119

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

57

88. GiNSBURGj L (1930)- — Commercial snappers (LUTIAIDAE) of Gulf of

Mexico, Document No. 1089, Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C., U. S. Dept, of Interior, voL XL VI, pp 265-276

89. GUDGER, E. w. {l9}9)~The whale shark in the Caribbean Sea and the

Gulf of Mexico, Sci. Mon. 3, pp 261-264

(Localities of eight groups of whale sharks observed in the Gulf of Mexico)

90. GUNTER, G. (1941) — Vertical distribution of fishes in shallow coastal

waters, Copeia, pp 1-3 8

91. — - — — - — — - (1940)" — Marine fishes killed by the cold wave of

January, 1940 (Abstract), Proc. Texas Acad. Sci. 23, p. 27

92. - — - - - - — (1941) — -Death of fishes due to cold on the Texas

coast, January, 1940, Ecology 22, no. 2, pp 203-208

93. — — — — - — . . (1941) — Relative numbers of shallow water fishes

of the northern Gulf of Mexico with some records of rare fishes from the Texas coast, Amer. Mid. Nat. 26, pp 194-200

94. HART, w. D. {19 \2)~— Oyster and fish industry of Louisiana, Trans.

Fish Assoc. 42, pp 151-156

95. HiGGENS, E. AND LORD, R. (1927)- — Preliminary report on the marine

fisheries of Texas, Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1926, Appen. IV, pp 167-199

("The idea that it will not be long before the fish supply of Texas and the Atlantic coast states will be exhausted is fast gaining recog¬ nition. The recent scarcity of certain species in the Texas markets emphasized this possibility . . . ’’(Opening sentences of this report) Various fishing districts from the Rio Grande to Galveston were visited and studied)

96. JARVIS, N. D. {195 5 )— -Fishing for red snappers and groupers in the

Gulf of Mexico, U. S. Dept, of Interior, Bureau of Fisheries, Investi¬ gational Report No. 16, 2 pp

97. JORDAN, D. s. AND GILBERT, c. H. (1882) — -Notcs ou fishes observed

about Pensacola, Florida, and Galveston, Texas, with description of new species, Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, pp 241-307

98. JORDAN, D. s. ET AL (1928) — Check list of the fishes, and fish-like

vertebrates of north and middle America north of the northern boundary of. Venezuela and Columbia, Rept. U. S. Comm, of Fish, Appen. X, pp 1-670

(Includes animals found in the Gulf of Mexico area)

99. MILLER, E. M. (1940) —Mortality of fishes due to cold on the south¬

east Florida coast 1940, Ecology 21, pp 420-421

100. RATHBURN, R. (1892)- — The fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico, Rept.

U. S. Comm, of Fish. 1888-1889, pp LVI-LIX (Discusses location of red snapper banks)

101. SELLARS, L. H. ( 1885 )- — Abundance of fish in the Gulf of Mexico,

Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish, vol. V, p. 304

(Suddenly abundant again in 1885 for the first time since 1881)

102. SMITH, H. M. {1^95)Snapper fishing on Campeche Bank, Gtdf of

Mexico, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1893, pp 68-70

(Comments on the very great abundance of fish in this area all year

even at the time when fishing is poor at other places in the Gulf of

Mexico)

58

The Texas Journal of Science

103. STEARNS, s. ( 1883 )- — Fluctuations in the fisheries of the Gulf of

Mexico and the proposed investigations of them, Bull. U. S. Bur.

Fish., vol. Ill, pp 467-468

(Marked decrease for five previous years from Mississippi River to 50 miles east of Pensacola, although some commercial species still abundant south of Pensacola to Cedar Keys)

104. • — - - - (1884) — On the position and character of the

fishing grounds of the Gulf of Mexico, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. IV,

pp 289-290

(Correlates good fishing with rocky bottom and depths shallower than 40 fathoms)

105. — - - - ( 1885 ) — Examination of the fisheries of the Gulf

of Mexico, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., vol. V, pp 28 5-287 (He proposes a fishery survey to be conducted on an annual basis in the Gulf of Mexico for best results using a small schooner about 60 tons. Lists monthly expenses of one mate $50, cook $40, 4 fish¬ ermen at $2 5 each, provisions $150, and maintenance $75. Would be desirable to have one or two young men with knowledge of nat¬ ural history aboard. Cites increasing scarcity of fish and necessity for fishermen to travel increasing distances to catch enough fish)

106. STOREY, M. (1937) — The relation bettveen normal range and mortal-

ity of fish due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida, Ecology 19, pp 10-26

107. TULiAN, E. A. (1923) — The present status of the Louisiana shrimp

industry, Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 53, pp 110-121

108. - - (1926) — Increase in the salt tvater shrimp catch

from Louisiana waters, Trans. Amer. F’ish Soc. 56, pp 169-174

109. WEYMOUTH, F. ET AL ( 1932) — A survey of the life history of the

common shrimp of the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 62, pp 108-110

("The common shrimp differs decidedly from any other aquatic animal supplying a major fish industry in that it has a life cycle of only one year. The entire catch (one hundred million pounds in 1929) is composed of individuals that have not had and never will have an opportunity to spawn”)

110. wiLLcox, j. (1887)-— Fw/? killed by cold along the Gulf of Mexico

and coast of Florida, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 6, p’. 123

111. WOOD, M. L. ( 1883 ) — The fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico, Bull. U, S.

Bur. Fish 1882, vol. II, pp 19-20

(Believes fishing banks of Gulf if properly marked and exploited would compare favorably with those of Newfoundland)

LOUISIANA

112. GOWANLOCH, J. N. (1932) — The importance and conduct of hydro-

graphic studies in Louisiana in relation to commercial fisheries, Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 62, pp 3 3 6-339

(Cites need for extensive hydrographic surveys of the Gulf of Mexi¬ co and contiguous areas; also includes some hydrographic data ob¬ tained in the area by a 57-ft gov’t. -owned research vessel "Black Hawk”)

- - - ( 1 9 3 3 ) — F/s/aes and fishing in Louisiana, La. Dept.

of Con. Bull. No. 23, 63 8 pp

113.

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

59

114. GUNTER, G. ( 193 5) — Records of fish rarely caught in shrimp trawls

in Louisiana, Copeia 1, pp 39-40

115. — - - — =» — — - {1916) —Studies of the destruction of marine fish

by shrimp traivlers in Louisiana, La. Conser. Rev. 5, pp 18-24, 45-46 115. _ — - - — — ( 1938) — Seasonal variations in abundance of cer¬

tain estuarine and marine fishes in Louisiana, with particular refer¬ ence to life histories, Ecol. Mono. 8, no. 3, pp 313-346, 16 figs. (Number of fish caught in ottor trawls in Barataria Bay and the Gulf of Mexico were plotted monthly from October, 1931-March, 1934, annual re-current seasonal peaks of abundance and migration were shown for many species)

1 1 7. - — - — - (1938) —The relative number of species of marine

fish off the Louisiana coast, Amer. Nat. 72, pp 79-83

TEXAS

118. EVERMANN, B. w. AND KENDALL, w. c. (1894) — The fisJoes of Texas

and the Rio Grande Basin considered chiefly with reference to their geographic distribution. Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. 12, pp 57-126

119. FOWLER, H. w. (1931)- — A collection of fishes from the Texas coast,

Copeia 2, pp 46-50

120. GUNTER, G. (1943)-— A fisheries program for the Texas coast, Proc.

and Trans. Texas Acad. Sci, 26, pp 53-54

121. — — — . — — {1945)— Studies on Marine Fishes of Texas, Publ.

of the Inst, of Marine Science, vol. 1, no. 1, May, pp 1-190 12 2. PEARSON, j. c. {1929)— Natural history and conservation of red fish and other commercial SCAENIDS on the Texas coast. Bur. of F’ish, vol. XLIV, pp 129-214, Doc. No. 1046

(Page 13 5 describes summer of 192 5 as characterized by a period of excessive salinity in Laguna Madre causing severe mortality of fish trapped within the lagoon)

123. STEVENSON, c. H. (1893 )- — Report on the coast fisheries of Texas,

Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1889-1891, pp 373-420, Doc. 218 (Page 379— "Little difference has been noticed in the quantity of the species taken from year to year. Exceptions are redfish which decreased in abundance, but pompano and mackerel more abundant.” Gives location of red snapper bank— very plentiful- — obtained eight tons in five hours. The finest oyster reefs in Texas are located in Matagorda Bay 45 sq. mi. Texas oyster law statutes given at end of report)

MEXICO

124. BELTRAN, ENRIQUE (1928) — La Pesca en los litorales de golfo y la

necesidad de los estudios de biologia marina para desarrallaresa fuenta de riqueza (The need for investigating the fish of the littoral zone of the Gulf as a source of natural wealth), Memorias y revista de la Sociedad cientifica "Antonio Alzate,” Tomo 49 Num. 9-12, pp 421-445

12 5. FRAGOSO, F. N. (1938) — The situation of the fishing industry in Mexico, Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 68, pp 2 56-261 (Lists chief commercial species in Gulf of Mexico in Mexican waters) 126. GOMEZ, I. c. (1926) — Riqueza Pisquera de Mexico' y Es pedes Notables Memorias de la Soc. Cient. "A. Alzate,” vol. 45, nos. 7-12, pp 429-452 (Common and rare species of Mexican fish)

60

The Texas Journal of Science

OYSTERS

GENERAL

127. MOORE, H. F. (1898)- — Physical characteristics of the Gulf states fa¬

vorable to oyster culture, Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. XVII, 1897 p. 277

(Brief statement to that effect only)

128. scHECHTER, V. (1943)— -T WO flat worms from the oyster drilling

snail Thais floridana haysae Clench, Jour. Paristol. vol. 29

ALABAMA

129. DELCHAMPS, j. L. (1896) — Notcs respecting oysters of Mobile Bay

and Sound in Mobile County, Alabama, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. XV, pp 339-340

13 0. GALTSOFF, p. s. (1930) — 'Destruction of oyster bottoms in Mobile Bay

by flood of 1929, Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1929, Append. XI, pp 741-758

131. MOORE, H. F. {1913)— Condition and extent of the natural oyster

beds and barren bottoms of Mississippi Sound, Alabama, Kept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1911, 60 pp, also Doc. 769

(A detailed hydrographic and biological survey with special refer¬ ence to factors involved in oyster culture)

132. - (1911) — Condition and extent of the natural

oyster beds and barren bottoms of Mississippi east of Biloxi, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, pp 1-42, Doc. 774 13 3. RITTER, H. p. (1896) — Report of a reconnaissance of the oyster beds of Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound, Alabama, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 15, pp 325-340

MISSISSIPPI

134. MOORE, H. F. (1913) — Conditions and extent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms of Mississippi coast east of Biloxi, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, 1911, 41 pp, also as Doc. 774 (one map)

(A detailed hydrographic and biological survey with special reference to factors involved in oyster culture)

LOUISIANA

13 5. CARY, L. R. (1906) — The conditions of oyster ctdture in the waters of the parishes of Vermillion and Iberia, Louisiana, Bull. Gulf Biol. Sta.

4, pp 1-27

(Discusses survey of productive areas and ecological conditions from standpoint of oyster culture)

136. DYMOND, j. (1914) — The oyster of Louisiana, 1st Bien. Rept. Dept.

Conser. Louisiana.

(Discusses effects of change in salinity of water on oyster)

137. FIEDLER, R. H. (1932) — Fisheries of Louisiana, La. Cons. Rev. 2, pp

3-8, 26

(Statistical survey)

13 8. GATES, w. H. (1907) — -A few notes on oyster culture in Louisiana, Bull. Gulf Biol. Sta. 15, pp 1-32

(Discussion of practical problems involved in oyster culture as well as effect of certain ecological factors)

139. GLASER, o. c. (1904) — Some experiments on the growth of oysters. Bull. Gulf Biolog. Sta. 2, pp 9-31

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

61

(Includes a discussion of certain ecological factors significant to the growth of oysters in, this area)

140« KELLOG, j. L. {1905}— -Notes on marine food mollmks of Lomsiana^ Bull. Gulf Biol. Sta. 3, pp 1-43

(Discusses ecological factors favorable in this area to marine mollusk culture)

141. MOORE, H. F. {1H99)— Report on the oyster beds of Louisiana, Kept.

U. S. Comm. Fish, voL 24, pp 49-100; (1898)

(Includes description of various predators and their effect on the oyster from the statements made by the oystermen. AlsO' discusses oyster legislation for Louisiana)

142. — — _ and pope, t. e. b. {190^}— Oyster culture ex¬

periments and investigations in Louisiana, Rept. U, S. Comm. Fish, p, 1M2, Doc. 731

(Discusses factors involved, including major ecological ones, in suc¬ cessful oyster culture for this area)

143. SPAULDING, H. H. (1906)— A preliminary report on the distribution

of the scallops and clam-s in the Chandeleur Island regions, Louisiana, Bull, Gulf Biol. Sta. 6, pp 29-43

TEXAS

144. BAUGHMAN, J. L. (1948)— Aii for the oyster, Texas Game and Fish

6, pp 4-5, 15 ...

(Discusses oyster culture situation in Texas and gives recommenda¬ tions for its improvement)

145. ■ ■ • ■ — — (MMS) Oyster and oyster planting in Texas

(A compilation of all the material available on Texas oysters, includ¬ ing history, surveys, pests, mudshell, laws, etc.)

146. BURR, J, G, (1928) — The oyster problem of the Texas coast with sug¬

gestions for its solution, Bull. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 2, pp 1-9

147. — - — (1933 )— in oyster culture on the Texas

coast. Bull, Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 6 pp 1-24

148. FEDERiGHi, H. AND COLLIER, A. w. (MMS)- — Stirvey of oystcr pest of

the Texas coast

(Includes discussion of -ecological conditions related W oyster culture in area extending from Corpus Christi to Galveston. Reported in Baughman, J. L. '"An Annotated Bibliography of Oysters,” 1947 Pub. by Texas A and M Research Foundation, 794 pp

149. GALTSOFF, p. s. ( 1 9 2 6 ) — S«f ^^3/ of Texas waters with regard to oyster

culture, Rept. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm., pp 11-14 (Discusses ecological factors involved in oyster culture along Texas coasts between Corpus Christi and Matagorda Bays)

150. — (1931)— A survey of oyster bottoms in Texas,

Bur. Fish. Invest. Rept. VI, pp 1-30

(Stresses factors involved in oyster culture although some ecological data are presented)

151. " — ^ _ ( 193 5)— Oys/cf culture problems in Texas, Gal¬

veston, Texas, December 14

152. GUNTER, G. {1942)— Seasonal condition of Texas oysters, Proc. and

Trans. Texas Acad, Sci. 2 5, pp 89-93

62

The Texas Journal of Science

153. HEDGEPETH, j. w. (1946) —Report on marine biological work for the

fiscal year 1945-46, Kept. Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Comm. 1945-1946

(Discusses ecological factors involved in oyster culture)

154. HIGGINS, E. {1930)— Progress in biological inquiries, 1929, Rept. U. S.

Comm. Fish, App. XV, Doc. 1096, pp 1069-1121

(Includes a discussion of salinities in Galveston Bay with regard

to oyster culture)

15 5. HOPKINS, A. E. (1931) — Factors influencing the spawning and setting of oysters in Galveston Bay, Texas, U. S. Dept, of Interior, Bur. Fish, 47, pp 58-83

156. MOORE, H. F. (1907) — Survey of the oyster bottom in Matagorda

Bay, Texas, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish 1905, 86 pp, Doc. 610 (1 map) (Hydrographic and biological survey with special reference to oyster culture. He notes "Shore lines in places differed considerably from permanent marks made by USC and GS and later reoccupied. In general the bay has encroached upon the land between 100 to 500 yards from the shore line shown on the projections furnished by the USCGS.” Includes a large map of area)

157. — - — — - AND DANGLADE, E. (1915) — Conditions and ex¬

tent of the natural oyster beds and barren bottoms of Lavaca Bay, Texas, Rept. U. S. Bur. Fish. Appen. II, 1914, 45 pp, 1 map (A detailed hydrographic and biologic survey with special reference to factors involved in oyster culture is presented. Also gives scale of hardness in terms as used by oyster growers: hard penetration <4”; stiff penetration between 4-8”; soft penetration between 8-13”; very soft penetration between 13-18”; ooze > 18”)

158. o^MALLEY, H, (1929) — Kept, of the Commissioner, Rept. U. S.

Comm. Fish, pp I-XXXIII

(Includes discussion of feeding, controlled field experiments and a survey along the Texas coast of oysters)

159. RATHBURN, R. ( 1895)^ — Report on the inquiry respecting food fishes

and the fishing grounds, Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish, 19, pp 23-26 (Discusses factors involved in oyster mortality occurring in Gal¬ veston Bay, Texas)

160. SCHLESSELMAN, G. w, (1943)— Some economic aspects of Texas

marine fisheries and developments, Proc. Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 26, pp 80-83 (Abs.)

(Discusses oyster production in terms of economic and ecological factors involved. Annual production now is less than one million pounds, whereas in 1904 peak year of production two million pounds were produced.

MEXICO

161. CONTRERAS, F. (1932) — Datos para el estudo de los ostiones Mexicanos

(Data for the study of the Mexican oysters), Anales del Inst. Biol., vol. 3

162. DLTGES, A. ( 1905) — Apuntes de bromatologia animal para Mexico

(Notes on the animal bromatology for Mexico), Mem. Soc. Alzate 24, pp 33 1-338

(Has a short discussion of oyster situation in Mexico)

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

63

GEOLOGY

HISTORICAL AND GENERAL

163. ANONYMOUS (1947)^ — Geological shidy of Gulf coast continental

shelf, Oil and Gas Jour. 46, pp 82-87

164. — — - — - — (1947) — Magnolia testing offshore formations in

the Gulf, World Petroleum, vol. 18, no. 3, pp 60-61, 110

165. BOLTON, H. E. (1915) — -The location of La Salle’s colony on the Gulf

of Mexico, Mississippi Valley Hist. Rev., vol. 2, no. 2 (September), pp. 165-182, map opp. p. 173

166. DARBY, w. (1816)- — A geographical description of the state of Louisi¬

ana, Philadelphia, John Melis

(Darby was apparently the first to recognize the Mississippi origin of the Bayou Teche course)

167. DOHM, c. F. (1936) — List of maps dealing with Rlaquemines and St.

Bernard parishes, Louisiana Dept, Cons., Geol. Bull. No. 8, pp 321-338

168. FISK, H, N. (1944) — Geological investigations of the alluvial valley of

the lower Mississippi River, Miss. River Comm., Vicksburg, Miss.

169. HACKETT, c. w. (1931) — Pichardo’s Treatise on the Himits of Louisi¬

ana and Texas’, vol. I, 630 pp, Univ. Texas (vol II published 1934,

618 pp)

170. HiLGARD, E. w. {1^69)— Summary of a late geographical reconnais¬

sance of Louisiana, Amer. Jour. Sci., 2nd ser., XL VIII, pp 331-345 (General reconnaissance geology of area)

171. - - - - (1871) — On the geological history of the Gulf of

Mexico, Amer. Jour. Sci. Ill, vol. 11, pp 391-404

(Brief discussion of historical geology of area from Cretaceous

through Quaternary)

172. - - - - - (1891) — -The late Tertiary of the Gulf of Mexico,

Amer. Jour. Sci. Ill, vol. XXII, pp 5 8-65

173. - — - - - — (1881) — The basin of the Gulf of Mexico, Amer.

Jour, Sci. in, vol. XXI, pp 283-291

(Generalized description of the bathymetric character of the area including a map; pL IX after p. 343

174. HILL, R. T. (lS99)-—Cuba and Puerto Rico, Century Co., N, Y., 429

pp, 2nd ed.

(See pp 3-5 for Gulf of Mexico)

175. HOWELL, E. E. (1904)- — Relief model of the Bay of North America

including the Gulf of Mexico^ and Caribbean Sea, USC and GS (Also available as frontispiece in Schuchert’s "Historical Geology of the Antillean-Caribbean Region,” 193 5, John Wiley, 2nd ed., N. Y.)

176. REESE, PAULINE (1938)- — The history of Padre Island (Texas), manu¬

script thesis for M.A. Degree, Texas College of Arts and Industries, Kingsville, Texas, 12 5 pp

177. RUSSELL, R. j. AND HOWE, H. V. (193 5) — Chenicrs of southwestern

Louisiana, Geog. Rev., vol. 2 5, no. 3, pp 449-461

178. RUSSELL, R. J. (1936) — Physiography of the lotver Mississippi Delta,

Louisiana Dept. Cons., Geol. Bull. No. 8

(This work is the only complete and authoritative compilation of the data on the Mississippi Delta within Plaquemines and St. Bernard Parishes, La. It includes much information on the details of the

64

The Texas Journal of Science

physiography, subsidence, and rate of delta growth.)

179. . . . . "■ AND DOHM, c. F. ( 195 6) -—Bibliography , La. Geoi.

Survey Bull. No. 8, pp 279-320

(Very comprehensive bibliography on geology and hydrology of lower Mississippi River delta area)

180. RUSSELL, R. j. {l940)—QtMiernary history of Louisiana, GeoL Bull., Soc. America, voL 51, p. 1228

181. scHUCHERT, c. H. {19} 5 ) —Historical geology of the Antillean-

Carrihhean region or the lands bordering the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, John Wiley, New York, 811 pp (See especially Section II, pp 5 8-78. Also comprehensive geologic and paleontologic bibliography for the region.)

182. SUESS, E. ( 1904-1909)— Dtfs Antlitz der Erde (The face of the earth), vols. I and II, (Eng. trans. by Sollas)

(See p. 5 51, voL I and pp 137, 20 5, 599, voL II for Gulf of Mexico) THEORETICAL AND STRUCTURAL

183. LAWSON, A. c. (1942)— Mississippi delta— a study in isostasy, GeoL

Soc. Amer. voL 53, pp 1231-1254

(Delta is in isostatic balance and will continue to be throughout its growth up to a limit of thickness that is determined by the initial depth of water.)

184. MACGREE, w. (1892) — The Gulf of Mexico as a measure of isostasy,

Amer. Jour. Sci. (3), XLV, pp 177-192

(Detailed discussion of criteria for the general subsidence of this whole area as a result of isostatic adjustment to the great load of sediments received from its continental drainage basin.)

18 5. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL {1926-1927) —Committee on sub¬ marine topography and structural history of the Caribbean, Gulf region, Ann. Kept., Append. I

186. PRICE, w. A. {1933)— Role of disastrophism in topography of Corpus

Christi area, South Texas, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 17, pp 907-962

187. ■ — GUNTER, G. (1942)— Certain recent geologi¬

cal and biological changes in South Texas with consideration of prob¬ able causes. Proc. and Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 26, pp 13 8-156

18 8. PRICE, w. A. {1947)— Equilibrium of form and forces- in tidal basins of the coast of Texas and Louisiana, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol. 31, pp 1619-1663

189. SHEPARD, F. (1937) — Salt domes related to Mississippi submarine

trough, Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 48, pp 1349-1361

190. STEPHENSON, H. E. (1928)— Mtf/Of marine transgressions and regres¬ sions and structural features of the Gulf Coastal Plain, Amer. Jour. Sci. 5, vol. 16

SEDIMENTOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

191. ATWOOD, w. w. AND PEATTiE, R. {I917)—Saping the silts of the Mis- sississippi river, Bull. Geol, Soc. Amer, 28, pp 149-150 (Abstract)

192. BULLARD, F. M. {1942)—Source of beach and river sands on Gulf

coast of Texas, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 53, pp 1021-1043

193. DicKESON, M. w. AND BROWN, A. (1848)— sediments of the

Mississippi, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1, pp 42-5 5

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico 6^

194. DOHMj c. F. {193 6)— Igneous^ metamorphic and sedimentary pebbles from the Chandelem Islands, La. Geol. Survey Bull. 8, pp 397-402 195^ (l936)-=-Prfro^f«'_^^3/ of two Mississippi river

sub-deltas, La. Geol. Sur. Bull. 8, pp 3 39-402

196. FAULKNER, F. H. {l9'^5)—St^^dies of river bed materials and their

movement, with special reference to the lower Mississippi river, LJ. S. WaterworL Expt. Sta., Vicksburg, Miss., Paper 17, 161 pp

197. KRUMBEiN, w. AND ABERDEEN, A. (1937)— scdiments of Barataria

Bay, Jour. Sed. Pet. 7

198. MAURY, CARLOTTA j. (1920) —Recent moUusks of the Gulf of Mexico

and Pleistocene and Pliocene species from the Gulf states, Part h Pelecypoda, Bull. Amer. Paleontology 8, 113 pp, 1 pi.

(Annotated bibliography with synonymy of 345 forms of pelecypods as limited to the title together with their distribution and occur¬ rence. Includes recent littoral species from Tampa tO' Corpus Christi and recent deep water species dredged by the '■'Blake” in the Gulf of Mexico)

199. . (1922)— Recent mollusca of the Gulf of Mexico

and Pleistocene and Pliocene species from Gulf states, Part 11. Scapho'da, Gastropoda, Amphineura, Cephalopoda, Bull. Amer. P'aleon. 3 8, 142 pp

(Annotated bibliography of organisms listed in title together with their distribution and occurrence. Includes recent littoral species from Tampa to Corpus Christi.)

200. MURRAY, j. (1^^5 )~Report on the specimens of bottom deposits.

Reports on the results of dredging ... by the U. S. Coast Survey Steamer ^^Blake^^ . . . Bull. Mus. of Compr. Zool. at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., No. XXVII, vol. 12, pp 37-61

201. ■- — - ■ ' (1899)— -Off the survey by the SS Britannia^’ of

the cable route hettveen Bermuda, Turk^s Islands and Jamaica, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 22, pp 409-429

(Describes bottom sediments in this and contiguous areas which in¬ clude parts of the continental shelf of western Florida. Coral mud and sand together with some blue mud and ooze. Map facing p. 428)

202. PHLEGER, F. B. (1939) —Foraminif era cores from the continental slope, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 50, p. 1395

203. RIDDELL, J. L. (1^46) —DeposIts of the Mississippi and changes in Us

motith, DeBow*s Review 2, pp 43 3-448

204. RUSSELL, R. (1937)— Mineral composition of Mississippi River bed

materials, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 48, p. 1307

205. RUSSELL, R. J. AND RUSSELL, R, D. ( 1939) —Mississippi River delta

sedimentation, Recent Marine Sediments, Amer. Assoc. Petrol, Geol.

206. THORP, E, (1931)— Description of deep sea bottom samples from the

western North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea, Scripps Inst. Ocean. Tech. Bull. 3, pp 1-31

207. TRASK, p. D., PHLEGER, F. B., STETSON, H. c. (1947 ) —Recent changes in sedimentation in the Gulf of Mexico, Science 106, No, 2759, No¬ vember 14, pp 460-461

208. TROWBRIDGE, A. c. (1923) Sedimentation at the mouths of the

Mississippi River, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 34, p. 95 (Abstract)

209. - - — ^ (1927) — -Disposal of sediments carried to the

66

The Texas Journal of Science

Gulf of Mexico by Southwest Pass, Mississippi River, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 3 8, p. 148 (Abstract)

210. - — (1930) — Building of the Mississippi delta, Bull.

Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol, 14, pp 867-901

(One of the most recent comprehensive reports on this subject.)

211. TURNER, H. j. {1901))— Examination of mud from the Gtdf of Mexi¬

co, Bull. U, S. Geol. Survey 212, pp 107-112

212. STEiNMAYER, R. A. (1931) — Phases of sedimentation in Gulf coastal prairies of Louisiana, La. Cons. Rev. 1, pp 10-14, 27-28

213. — — — - — ^ — (1939) — Bottom sediments of Lake Pont char -

train, Louisiana, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 23, pp 1-23

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY PETROLEUM EXPLORATION

214. CARSEY, J. B. (1948) — Basic geology of the Gulf coastal area and the

continental shelf. Oil and Gas Jour. 47, pp 246-2 51

215. CRiTZ, J. s. (1947) — Oil possibilities on the Gulf coast — continental shelf. Oil Weekly 124, pp 17-2]

216. HARRIS, G. D. (1910)- — Oil and gas in Louisiana with brief summary

of their occurrence in adjacent states. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey 429, 192 pp.

(Cites occurrence of oil in the Gulf on p. 9; map facing p. 6)

217. HASEMAN, J. D. (1921) — The humic acid origin of asphalt. Bull.

Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 5, pp 75-79

(Discusses the formation of asphalt and a number of other bitumi¬ nous solid and semi-solid substances along the coast of Florida and Georgia, where the water from fresh-water swamps flows into the salt water of the Gulf of Mexico. The swamp water contains notable quantities of humic acids and related substances in solution, and these are precipitated by the salt water.)

218. HAYES AND KENNEDY (1903) — 0/7 fklds of the Texas-Louisiana Gulf

Coastal plains. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey 212, 174 pp

(pp 104-107 mentions presence of oil ponds in the Gulf about two

miles offshore near mouth of Sabine)

219. HiLGARD, E. w, (1869) — On the geology of lower Louisiana and the

rock salt deposit of Petite Anse, Amer. Jour. Sci. XL VII, ser. 2, pp 77-89

(A description of the general geology of the region with special emphasis on such areas as Petite Anse or Avery’s Island, Cote Blanche, Five and Weeks Islands, etc. Origin attributed to crystallization from the pure brine of salt springs.)

220. PHILLIPS, w. B. (1900) — Texas petroleum. Bull, Univ. Texas 5, July

(Discusses origin of oil ponds off Sabine River in Texas.)

221. PRATT, w. E, (1947) — Petroleum on continental shelves. Bull. Amer.

Assoc, of Petrol. Geol. 31, pp 657-672

(Includes discussion of offshore water of Gulf of Mexico.)

222. TURNER, H. J. (1903) — Examination of mud from Gulf of Mexico,

Bull, U. S. Geol, Survey 212, pp 107-112

(Geologic and biologic analyses of mud. Mentions briefly presence of sea wax found along shores of Gulf from Sabine to Corpus Christi

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

67

in cakes 6-8 feet long and 1-2 inches thick. Presence of oil in mud samples also mentioned.)

223. UNITED STATES NAVY HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE (1900, 1905, 1906) -

Maps showing oil slicks in the Gnlf of Mexico

SHORE LINE PRESERVATION

224. BROOKE, M. M. (1934)— Shore preservation in Florida, Shore and

Beach 2, New Orleans

(Discusses effects of building jetties and sea walls on the erosional and depositional characteristics of the adjoining areas.)

225. MARKS, E. H. (1936)— -Discussion of Galveston seawall, Shore and

Beach 4

226. UNITED STATES ARMY ENGINEERS BEACH EROSION BOARD (1937) — Report on erosion at Grande Isle, Louisiana, Shore and Beach 5, pp 77-83

(The 6-foot depth contour of the 193 5 survey shows a decided shore¬ ward movement since 1891 survey. The recssion averages 2300 feet.)

227. - - — - — — ( 193 5) -“S^or^ protection of Galveston Bay,

Harris County, Texas, House Doc. 74, 74th Congress, 1st Sess., 6 pp, 2 pi.

228. WASHINGTON, c. c. {193S)—Galveston Island shoreline and the pro¬

tection of Galveston beach. Shore and Beach 6, pp 105-108

CHANGES IN CHARACTERISTICS OF MISSISSIPPI DELTA HISTORICAL AND GENERAL

229. BACHE, A. D. (IS5 1 )— -Annual Report of the Superintendent of the

Coast Survey, 32nd Congress, 1st Sess., House Doc. 26, pp 74-78 (Reconnaissance survey compared with Talcott’s survey of 1839 in which changes in the eastward passes and advance of marshes are discussed. )

230. - - - (1^59)— Report of the Superintendent of the

Coast Survey, 3 5th Congress, 2nd Sess. S. Doc. 14, p. 103 (Progress report of work in hydrography, triangulation and topog¬ raphy)

231. BARNARD, j. c. ( 1863 )- — HydrauUcs of the report on the Mississippi River of Humphreys and Abbot, Amer. Jour. Sci. 2nd ser., XXXVI, pp 16-37, 197-212

(Discusses deepening of passes)

232. BROWN, R. M. (1910) — Maximum, minimum and average hydrographs

of the Mississippi River, Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc. 42, pp 107-110

233. BURWELL, w. M. (1^74) —Memoir of the delta canal from the Mw-

sissippi River below St. Philip, into the Gulf of Mexico near Use au Breton: Compiled from the best sources, Rept. Chief of Engineers, Appen R 15b, pp 792-801

(History of attempts to deepen bars and of the proposed canal)

234. coRTHELL, E. L. (1878) — The South Pass jetties, Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. 7, pp 131-148

(Account of construction problems encountered in construction of jetties)

— - — — — (1881)-— A history of the jetties at the mouths of

the Mississippi River, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2nd ed.

235.

68

The Texas Journal of Science

236. DEBOW, j. D. B. (1856) — Connection of the Mississippi and Lake

Borgne, DeBow’s Review 20, pp 107-111 (Discusses plans for a canal)

237. DENT, E. j. (1927) — The mouths of the Mississippi River, Trans.

Amer. Soc, Civil Engrs. 87, pp 997-1006

(Makes comparisons of changes since early surveys by Talcott)

23 8. ELLIOTT, D. o. (1932) — The improvement of the lower Mississippi River for flood control and navigation, War Dept. Corps of Engrs. Expt. Sta., Vicksburg, Miss., 3 vols.

239. FORSHEY, c. G. {\%71>)—The delta of the Mississippi— The physics of

the river, etc., Proc. Amer. Soc, Adv. Sci. 21, pp 78-111

240. HiLGARD, E. w. (1874)- — On some points in MalleTs theory of vul-

canicity, Amer. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., VII, pp 534-546

(He believes that the Gulf coast has oscillated almost 1000 feet

since glacial times)

241. MATTisoN, G, c. (1924) — Aerial survey of the Mississippi River delta,

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Sp. Publ. 10 5, Sec. 271 (Describes methods used and ideas for future surveys)

242. MONTAiGU, R. (1874) — Project of a ship canal between the Mississippi

River and the Gulf of Mexico, Sect. War. Kept. Chief Engr., Appen. R15C, pp 801-822

243. QUINN, J. B. (1898)-— History of attempted improvement of the

mouth of the Mississippi River, 5 5th Congress, 3d Sess., House Doc. 142, pp 52-62

244. scHWEiZER, c. w. (1934) — Thalweg Soundings, Mississippi River,

New Orleans to the Gulf; showing hed materials, April 30 -May 5, 1934, (Available in photostat form from Mississippi River Commis¬ sion, Vicksburg, Miss.)

MUD LUMP PHENOMENA

245. ANONYMOUS (1868) — The Mississippi River, DeBow’s Review 5,

pp 454-471

(Discusses mud lumps and shallow gas phenomenon)

246. BURROWS, J. c, (1883)- — Improvements of the Mississippi River, 47th

Cong., 2nd Sess., House Doc. Rept. 198 5 (Discusses mud lumps)

247. CARTWRIGHT, s. A. (18 59) — The Mississippi: its bars, obstructions,

outlets, etc,, DeBow’s Review 26, pp 524-53 8 (Includes discussion of formation of mud lumps)

248. coRTHELL, E. L. (1884)— The South Pass jetties, etc., Trans. Amer.

Soc. Civil Engrs. 13, pp 313-3 30 (Also discusses mud lumps)

249. DELAFiELD, R. (1829) — Report on the survey of the passes of the Mis¬

sissippi, 21st Cong., 1st Sess., House Doc. 7, no. 1, pp 7-14 (Describes mud lumps)

2 50. ELLET, c. JR. (18 50})— Report on the improvement of the navigation across the bars at the mouth of the Mississippi River, 31st Congress, 2nd Sess., S. Doc. 17, no, 3, pp 1-18

(Describes conditions existing at passes at various times, mentions sharp contrast between fresh and salt water boundary, and discusses origin of mud lumps)

2 51. HARRIS, G, D. (1902)— The geology of the Mississippi embayment.

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

69

Kept, of Geol. Survey of La., Spec, Kept. 1, pp 1-39 (Discusses mud lumps)

252. HiLGARD, E. w. (1871)---Of^ the geology of the delta and the mud

lumps of the passes of the Mississippi Amer. Jour. Sci. II, pp 23 8-246, 356-364, 425-435

(A long detailed description to support his thesis that the mud lump formation constitutes the normal mode of progression of the Mis¬ sissippi mouths and that the Mississippi delta is unique among all deltas in this respect. Rate of upheaval may be as much as several feet in a day. Believes they are caused by drawing up of vent gas and artesian water and their subsequent search for an outlet.)

253. SHAW, E. w. (1913)“ from mud lumps at the mouths of the

Mississippi, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull, 541 A, pp 12-15

254. — - - — - {191})— -The miid lumps at the mouths of the

Mississippi, U. S. Geol, Survey Prof, Paper 8 5 B, pp 11-27, pi. 1-3, Washington

(Caused by squeezing together of soft clay layers in places where pressure is less strong and that lumps are not formed by volcanoes or by pressure from the accumulation of salt, sulphur and gas below the surface.)

25 5. THOMASSY, V. (1860) — Geologie pratique de la Louisiane (Practical Geology of Louisiana), New Orleans, 263 pp

(Discusses mud lump phenomena which he attributes to vents of subterranean streams)

GEOLOGIC AGE

2 56. HILGARD, E. w. {1S70) —Report on the geological age of the Mississippi delta to General A. A. Humphreys, Wash. Govt. Printing Office,

16 pp.

GEOLOGIC ORIGIN

257. HILGARD, E. w. (1906)— The exceptional nature and genesis of the

Mississippi delta. Science, n.s., 24, pp 861-866 (Summaries, theories and observations of mud lumps)

MISCELLANEOUS

258. BROWN, j. s. {1937)— The Florida ship canal, Econ. Geol. 32, pp 589

259. CUNNINGHAM, c. H. (1936) — The hydraulic problems of the Mis¬

sissippi passes. Shore and Beach 4, pp 13-17

(Problems involved in maintenance of these passes together with their history)

260. HAM AKER, J. I. (1930) — The composition of beach sand, with special

reference to its organic component, Randolph-Macon Woman’s Col¬ lege Bull. 16, p. 4

261. LEVY (1935) — La construction des digues le long du Mississippi (The

construction of the dikes along the Mississippi), Technique Moderne 15, p. 12

262. MARSH, R. E. (1939) — Reports on the stirface water supply of Louisi¬

ana to September 30, 1918, La. Dept. Conservation, Geol. Bull. 16

263. PAIGE, s. (1936)-^ — Effect of sea level on the ground water level of

Florida, Econ. Geol, 31, pp 537-570

70

The Texas Journal of Science

264. okey, c. w. (1918)- — The wetlands of southern Louisiana and their

drainage, U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 652.

265. UNITED STATES ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS (1936)- — Geological and ground water conditions in Florida in their relation to the Atlantic- Gulf ship canal, Interim Kept, of the Sp, Bd. of Eng. U. S. Army, Corps of Engrs,, Senate Doc. 147, 74th Cong., 2nd Sess.

GEOPHYSICS

HISTORICAL AND GENERAL

266. ANONYMOUS {1946) —Exploration around the Gulf of Mexico, The

Oil and Gas Jour., September 28, p. 13 5

267. COLBERT, L. {1944)— Geophysical measurements in American Repub¬

lics, Sci. Mon., vol. 58, no. 6, pp 43 5-439

268. DEEGAN, c. j. (1946) — Exploring the continental shelf. The Oil and

Gas Jour., June 15, p. 98

269. GAMMON, w. (1937) — Use of submarines suggested to seek structure

in Gulf, Oil and Gas Jour., August 19, pp. 29-30

SEISMIC

270. ANONYMOUS (1932) — Earthquake epicenters and gravity anomalies

in the Gulf of Mexico, etc.. Hydro. Rev. IX, no. 2, p. 11, also H. O. Misc. No. 7941

271. CHRISTIE, N. j. {1947)— Reflection seismograph exploration in coastal

waters. Mines Mag. 37, pp 37-40, 66

(Traces the development of reflection-seismic exploration on the continental shelves of the Gulf of Mexico and off the California coast)

272. SHORT, E. H. JR. {1944)— Distant offshore seismic survey conducted

in Gulf of Mexico, Oil and Gas Jour., August 26, p. 87

GRAVITY

273. BOWIE, w. (1927) — Isostasy, Dutton and Co., New York, 275 pp

(Gives gravity anomalies for eight stations on the Mississippi delta)

274. DALY, R. A. {1940)— Strength and structure^ of the earth’s crust,

Prentice-Hall, New York, 434 pp.

(Discusses gravity characteristics of the Gulf of Mexico area and Mississippi delta on pp. 264, 266, 306, 373, 376)

275. FROWE, E, (1946) — A diving bell for underwater gravimeter opera¬

tion, Oil and Gas Jour., April 6, p. 101 (Soc. Expl. Geop. Abstract)

276. HEiSKANEN, w. {1939)— Catalogue of the isostatically reduced grav¬

ity stations, publ. of the Isostatic Inst., Inter. Assoc, of Geodesy No. 5, Helsinki, 139 pp

(Stations taken at sea in the West Indies-— 103 stations)

277. NEUMANN, G. {1940) —Erf orschungen der Flachwassergebiete der Golfkueste inbesondere mit Flilfe der Drehwaage (Exploration of the shallow water areas of the Gulf Coast particularly with the aid of a torsion balance), Beitr. z. Angew. Geoph., vol. VIII, pp 305-340

278. VENiNG MEiNEsz, F. (1929) — A gravity expedition of U. S. Navy,

Amsterdam Soc. Pr., vol. 32, pp 44-99

279. - - - AND WRIGHT, F, E. (1932)— T/jc gravity measur¬

ing cruise for U. S. submarine S-21, U. S. Naval Obs. Pub., 2nd ser., vol. 13, App. 1

A Bibliography on the Gulf of Mexico

71

280. WILSON, G. M. (1946)-— Diving chamber permits gravity meter sur¬ veys on ocean bottom ^ The Oil Weekly, April 29, p. 22

281. WRIGHT, F. (1919)— Gravity measuring cruise of the submarine C/SS S-21, Carnegie Inst., Washington, Yr. Bk. no. 28, pp 73-77

MAGNETIC

282. GALLO, j. (19 57 )— Observations at secular variation stations in Mexi¬

co during 1936, Terr, Mag. XLII, pp 217-218

(Magnetic elements reported upon at Merida, Campeche, and Vera¬ cruz in tabulated form)

METEOROLOGY

HISTORICAL

283. ANONYMOUS (1671)~A description of a great storm that happened

to some ships in the gulph of Florida, etc. 1671, Mass. Historical Soc., Boston, Photostat No. 234

284. (1907)— List of hurricanes at Jacksonville, Flor¬ ida, 1842-1907, Monthly Weather Review 3 5, p, 571

28 5. — - — ______ (1915)— Number of thunderstorms in Galveston,

Texas, 1884-1913, Monthly Weather Review 46, p, 3 30

286. BARTLETT, J. R. (1^5 6)— Personal narrative of exploration and tnct-

cents in Texas, etc., Appleton and Co., New York, 624 pp.

(One of the earliest accounts of fish mortality caused by excessive cold, in this area, pp. 530-531)

287. FRANKENFiELD, H, c. (1917)— The troptcal storm of August 10,

1915, at Galveston, Monthly Weather Review 45, pp 405-412 (Also contains historical review of similar storms from 1875 to 1915)

288. FRAZER, R. D. (1921)— Early records of tropical hurricanes on the

Texas coast in the vicinity of Galveston, Texas, Monthly Weather Review 49, pp 454-457

(Starts with 1527; describes many changes in shore line during this period)

289. STUART, B. c. (1919)— Early Texas coast storms. Monthly Weather

Review 47, pp 641-642

GENERAL

290. EDELER, H. (1937 ) —W itterungsvetlauf eines FrueUingstages tm oest- Uchen .Golf von Mexico (Meteorological characteristics of a spring day in the eastern Gulf of Mexico), Ann. der Hydrog, und Mar. Meteor., voL 65, pp 136-137

291. EXTERNBRiNK, H. (1937)— ■£/« Beitiag zum W ettergeschen im Golf von Mexico, etc., (Discussion of a meteorological phenomenon in the Gulf of Mexico), Meteor. Zeitschr. LIV, pp 3 53-3 59, 413-417, Braunschweig, 3 pts,

(Discussion of origin and movement of air masses in this area, as well as section on origin and characteristics of hurricanes. Data on temperature, distribution also included)

292. FINLEY, J. p. (1^^4)— Charts of relative storm- frequency for a por¬ tion of the northern hemisphere, Prof. Papers of the Signal Service XIV, U. S. War Dept., 9 pp, 13 pL

(Includes Gulf of Mexico area)

72

The Texas Journal of Science

293. HACHEY, H. B. {191>A)—Theiveafherman and coastal fisheries, Trans.

Amer. Fish Soc. 64, pp 3 82-3 89

(The interrelation between meteorology, oceanography and economic aspects of fisheries are discussed to indicate the probable importance of marine meteorology, etc., to the forecasting of the nature of the fisheries in a given area)

294. MEY, A. (1923) — Pilot ball onaufstiege auf einer Fahrt nach Mexiko,

Sept, bis Dez., 1922 (Pilot balloon ascensions on a trip to Mexico, Sept, to Dec., 1922), Hamburg, 1923 Archiv der Deutschen Seewarte XLI,Jahrgang Nr. 4

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(Hurricanes are in all instances preceded by storm tides. The water commences rising on the coast in front of the cyclonic area one to two days before storm is experienced. Changes in the position of the rise of the storm tide indicate changes in the course of the storm)

304. — — - - - — (1926) — -Tropical cyclones, New York

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306. DUNN, G. E. (1940) — Aerology in the hurricane warning service.

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REGIONAL

GENERAL

312. CLINE, I. M. (1915) —Tropical hurricane of October 29, 1915,

Monthly Weather Review 46, pp 456-457

313. DAY, w. p. {1922) —Disturbances in southern waters during the hur¬

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314. DUNN, G. E. {19}})— Tropical storm of 1933, Monthly Weather Re¬

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318. — . . — ■ (1938) — T ropical disturbance of October 1938,

Monthly Weather Review 66, p. 325

319. {1939)-— Tropical disturbance of June 12-16,

1939, Monthly Weather Review 67, pp. 175-176 .

320. ------ ■' ' - — — (1940)— Tropical disturbance of August, 1940,

Monthly Weather Review 68, pp. 217-218

321. , (1940) — -T ropical dis tur banco of Se pt ember,

1940, Monthly Weather Review 68, pp. 245-247

322. HURD, w. E. (1936)— Atlantic -Gulf of Mexico hurricane of October

30 -November 8, 193 5, Monthly Weather Review 63, pp. 316-318

323. (1937)— Tropical disturbance on the North At¬ lantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, September, 1937, Monthly Weath¬ er Review 65, pp. 332-33 5

324. (1939) — Tropical disturbance of September 24-26, 1939, in the Gulf of Mexico, Monthly Weather Review 67, p. 340

32 5. MITCHELL, c. L. ( 193 3 ) —Tropicul disturbance of July, 1933, Monthly Weather Review 61, pp 200-201

326. (1933) — Tropical disturbance of September, 1933, Monthly Weather Review 61, pp. 274-276

327. - — ------- (1934)— Tropical disturbance